Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or understanding of a subject or skill through education, experience, practice, or study which causes a change in behavior
To successfully bring about learning, the instructor must know why people act the way they do, how people learn, and then use this understanding to teach
To be an effective instructor, knowledge of human behavior, basic human needs, the defense mechanisms humans use that prevent learning, as well as how adults learn is essential for organizing student activities and promoting a productive learning experience for students
Human Behavior Summary:
Human behavior is seen as the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways.
Human behavior is also defined as the result of attempts to satisfy needs.
By observing human behavior, an instructor can gain the knowledge needed to better understand him or herself as an instructor as well as the learning needs of individual students
Motivation:
Motivation prompts learners to engage in hard work and affects learner success.
Motivation may be positive or negative.
Motivation may be tangible or intangible.
All learners want secure, pleasant conditions and a safe environment.
If they recognize that what they are learning may promote these objectives, their attention is easier to attract and hold.
Insecure and unpleasant training situations inhibit learning.
Sources of motivation vary.
Instruction must be as tailored as practical to the student so as to reach the desired end state.
Definitions of Human Behavior:
The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why humans function the way they do
Human behavior is a product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment
In the scientific world, human behavior is seen as the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways
For example, speaking in public is very high on the list of fears modern humans have
While no two people react the same to any given fear, fear itself does trigger certain innate biological responses in humans such as an increase in breathing rate
How a person handles that fear is a product of individual experiences
The person who has never spoken in public may be unable to fulfill the obligation while another person, may chose to take a class on public speaking to learn how to cope with the fear
Human behavior is also defined as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs
Needs may be simple to understand and easy to identify, such as the need for food and water
Needs also may be complex, such as the need for respect and acceptance
To a large extend, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shared by all, despite seemingly large differences person-to-person.
A working knowledge of human behavior can help an instructor better understand a student
Another definition of human behavior focuses on the typical life course of humans
This approach emphasizes human development or the successive phases of growth in which human behavior is characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features
Research shows that as an individual matures, his or her mode of action moves from dependency to self-direction
Therefore, the age of the student impacts how the instructor designs the curriculum
By observing human behavior, an instructor can gain the knowledge needed to better understand him or herself as an instructor as well as the learning needs of individual students
Understanding human behavior leads to successful instructor and learner relationships
Instructor and Learner Relationships:
Research has led many educational psychologists to feel that based on personality type, everyone also has an individual style of learning
In this theory, working with that style, rather than against it, benefits both instructor and student
Today’s learner can visit any number of websites, take a personality test, and discover what type of learner he or she is and how best to study
Personality Tests:
There are many types of personality tests both students and instructors can experiment with, including:
The MBTI was developed to organize what they believed was fundamentally orderly and consistent human behavior according to individual perception and judgment
The test contains four different scales:
Extraversion (E) - Introversion (I) (action-oriented vs. thought oriented)
Sensing (S) - Intuition (N) (reality vs. abstraction)
Thinking (T) - Feeling (F) (objective vs. emotional)
Judging (J) - Perceiving (P) (firm vs. flexible)
Based on a person's responses, they are identified by a four-letter acronym (such as INFP or ESFJ) which describes their personality type
Human behavior was therefore distilled down to 16 personality types
David Keirsey (in the Keirsey Temperament Sorter personality test their sixteen types into four groups he calls Guardian, Artisan, Rational, and Idealist
Keirsey Temperament Sorter:
As mentioned, the Keirsey Temperament Sorter builds off the MBTI, taking those 16 traits (such as INFP or ESFJ) and breaking them out into four temperaments:
Guardian (orderly)
Artisan (creative)
Rational (cooperative)
Idealist (problem-solvers)
A breakdown of how the MBTI relates to Keirsey's Temperament Sorter can be found at VeryWellMind.com
HEXACO Personality Inventory:
The HEXACO Personality Inventory measures six facets of personality:
Honesty-Humility:
High scores indicate those who follow rules and are humble
Low scores indicate those who bend rules, perhaps due to an inflated sense of self importance
Emotionality:
High scores indicate those who may be anxious or empathetic
Low scores indicate those who fearless or detached
Extraversion:
High scores indicate those who are energetic and confidence
Low scores indicate those who believe they are unpopular or dislike being the center of attention
Agreeableness (vs. Anger):
High scores indicate those inclined to compromise or grand leniency
Low scores indicate those who are stubborn or hold grudges
Conscientiousness:
High scores indicate those who are careful and disciplined in their approach to achieving their goals
Low scores indicate those who are impulsive or are more easily deterred
Openness to Experience:
High scores indicate those who are imaginative and immersive
Low scores indicate those who are stay away from creative ideas and are not intellectually curious
The results of the HEXACO help predict future actions and approaches to problems or situations
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire:
The 16PF Personality Factors Questionnaire weights each traits on a 10-point scale
Traits measured are:
Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical
Apprehension: Worried versus confident
Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung
Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
Privateness: Discreet versus open
Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded
Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved
DISC Assessment:
The DISC assessment identifies four main personality categories:
Dominance (assertiveness)
Influence (working with others)
Steadiness (reliability)
Conscientiousness (analytical and detail-oriented skills)
Respondents are identified as one of 12 different personality types based on their results:
Dominance personality types:
D: Dominant
DC: Independent
DI: Efficient
Influence personality types:
I: Influential
ID: Friendly
IS: Enthusiastic
Steadiness personality types:
S: Steady
SI: Thoughtful
SC: Persistent
Conscientiousness personality types:
C: Conscientious
CD: Cooperative
CS: Sensitive
Not only does personality type influence how one learns, it also influences how one teaches
Learning one’s personality type helps an instructor recognize how they instructs
The match or mismatch between the way an instructor teaches and the way an individual learns contributes to instructional satisfaction or dissatisfaction
Learners whose styles are compatible with the teaching styles of an instructor tend to retain information longer, apply it more effectively, learn more, and have a more positive attitude toward the course in general
Although an instructor cannot change his or her preferred style of teaching to match a learning style, various instructing techniques can used to actively bridge the differences
Motivation:
Motivation is the reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals (the object of a person’s effort).
Motivation prompts learners to engage in hard work and affects learner success.
Being smart or coordinated seldom guarantees success, but motivation routinely propels learners to the top.
Aviation instructors must discover what motivates each learner and use this information to encourage them to work hard.
Motivation is probably the dominant force that governs the learner’s progress and ability to understand and can be used to the advantage of the instructor.
Motivation can be negative (fear).
Motivation can be positive (reward).
Positive motivation is essential to authentic learning.
Motivation may be tangible (physical reward) or intangible (security, comfort, confidence, etc.).
All learners want secure, pleasant conditions and a safe environment.
If learners recognize that their learning may promote these objectives, their attention is easier to attract and hold.
Insecure and unpleasant training situations inhibit learning.
Learners also want a tangible return for their efforts.
For motivation to be effective on this level, learners know their efforts are suitably rewarded.
These rewards need to be constantly apparent to the learner during instruction.
Instructors must ensure the learner recognizes their progress, as rewards may not be readily apparent.
Learners are anxious to gain advantageous skills.
If they understand that each task helps prepare for future activities, they are more willing to pursue it.
An instructor can foster motivation by introducing perceptions based on previously learned factual information that is easily recognized.
Each additional learning block should help formulate insight, contributing to the ultimate training goals and promoting confidence in the overall training program.
At the same time, it helps the learner develop a favorable self-image.
As this confirmation progresses and confidence increases, advancement is more rapid, and motivation strengthens.
Slumps in learning are often due to declining motivation.
Motivation does not remain at a uniformly high level.
The instructor should strive to maintain motivation at the highest possible level.
In addition, the instructor should be alert to detect and counter any lapses in motivation.
Sources of Motivation:
Sources of motivation vary.
Some have a fundamental interest in aviation.
Others seek to boost their self-image or ego.
Others still are motivated by tradition.
For some, practicality fosters motivation.
In the end, all are motivated by some reward.
Learning is a means to an end, not the end in itself.
Knowing this, instruction must be as tailored as practical to the student to reach the desired end state.
A questionnaire or short interview may provide critical insight to the instructor.
Maintaining Motivation:
Positive feedback encourages learners:
Praising incremental successes during training.
Relating daily accomplishments to lesson objectives.
Commenting favorably on learner progress and level ability.
As the student progresses against the Airman Certification Standards, comment favorably.
As the student progresses, the next challenge must also be presented, providing a new goal to reach.
Motivation will almost inevitably decrease at some point.
This can be due to slumps, setbacks, personal challenges, etc.
Instructors must cue in on a student's decrease in motivation and remind them of their initial motivation and intermediate successes.
Learning is a process, not a result.
Said differently, to eat an elephant, you must go one bite at a time.
Human Needs and Motivation:
Aviation Instructor's Handbook, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Human needs are things all humans require for normal growth and development.
Psychologist Henry A. Murray identified a list of core psychological needs in 1938:
Primary (based on biological needs, such as the need for food) or;
Secondary (generally psychological, such as the need for independence)
Murray’s research underpins the work of psychologist Abraham Maslow who also studied human needs, motivation, and personality
Maslow published what has become known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which remains valid today for understanding human motivation. [Figure 1-2]
According to Maslow, specific human needs must be satisfied before others.
Later research would find basic needs are not universal or absolute
Regardless of details, learners tend to show little to no motivation or attention if most of their needs are not met.
What matters is that the instructor verifies that most of the needs has been met (law of readiness) and is then able to focus the learner’s senses (perception) on the lesson
Aviation Instructor's Handbook, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Human Needs To Encourage Learning:
Human needs can be remembered in order as "PS-BECS," or:
They consist of the need for air, food, water, and maintenance of the human body.
Unless the biological needs are met, a person cannot concentrate fully on learning, self-expression, or any other tasks.
Instructors should monitor their learners to make sure that their basic physical needs have been met.
A hungry or tired learner may not be able to perform as expected.
Security:
Once the physiological needs are met, the need for security becomes active
Security needs are about keeping oneself from harm
If a student does not feel safe, he or she cannot concentrate on learning
The aviation instructor who stresses flight safety during training mitigates feelings of insecurity
Belonging:
When individuals are physically comfortable and do not feel threatened, they seek to satisfy their social needs of belonging
This involves both giving and receiving love, affection, and the sense of belonging
Instructors should make every effort to help new students feel at ease and to reinforce their decision to pursue a career or hobby in aviation
Esteem:
When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the need for esteem can become dominant
Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect and respect from others
Humans get esteem in two ways:
Internally:
A person judges himself or herself worthy by personally defined standards. High self-esteem results in self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge
Externally:
Most people, however, seek external esteem through social approval and esteem from other people, judging themselves by what others think of them
When esteem needs are satisfied, a person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless. Esteem needs not only have a strong influence on the instructor-student relationship, but also may be the main reason for a student’s interest in aviation training
Cognitive and Aesthetic:
In later years, Maslow added cognitive (need to know and understand) and aesthetic (the emotional need of the artist) needs to the pyramid. He realized humans have a deep need to understand what is going on around them. If a person understands what is going on, he or she can either control the situation or make informed choices about what steps might be taken next. The brain even reinforces this need by giving humans a rush of dopamine whenever something is learned, which accounts for that satisfying "eureka!" moment. For example, a flight student usually experiences a major "eureka!" moment upon completing the first solo flight
Aesthetic needs connect directly with human emotions, which makes it a subtle factor in the domain of persuasion. When someone likes another person, a house, a painting, or a song, the reasons are not examined—he or she simply likes it. This need can factor into the student-instructor relationship. If an instructor does not "like" a student, this subtle feeling may affect the instructor’s ability to teach that student
Self-Actualization:
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." To paraphrase an old Army recruiting slogan, self-actualization is to "be all you can be"
Self-actualized people are characterized by:
Being problem-focused
Incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life
A concern about personal growth
The ability to have peak experiences
Helping a student achieve his or her individual potential in aviation training offers the greatest challenge as well as reward to the instructor
Instructors should help students satisfy their human needs in a manner that creates a healthy learning environment. In this type of environment, students experience fewer frustrations and, therefore, can devote more attention to their studies. Fulfillment of needs can be a powerful motivation in complex learning situations
Human Nature and Motivation:
Human nature refers to the general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits shared by all humans. Motivation (discussed more fully in Chapter 2, The Learning Process) is the reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals. A goal is the object of a person's effort
Consider Jason, who came to aviation because he wanted to participate more actively in another realm of his business. Derek needs to capitalize on this motivation to keep Jason interested in the step-by-step procedures that must be learned in order to fly safely. There is a gap between Jason and his goal of earning a pilot certificate. It is Derek’s job to close the gap. The successful instructor channels student motivation and guides the student toward the goal of learning aviation skills through education, experience, practice, and study
Building on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, social psychologist Douglas McGregor set out two opposing assumptions about human nature and motivation in 1960. [Figure 1-3] Although McGregor’s famous X-Y Theory was designed for use in human resource management, it offers information about how people view human behavior at work and organizational life which makes it useful for aviation instructors. Theory X assumes that management’s role is to coerce and control employees because people need control and direction. Managers who think in Theory X terms believe people have an inherent dislike for work, avoid it whenever possible, and must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them to achieve the objectives
McGregor believed these assumptions were false, that the role of managers (or instructors) is to develop the potential in employees (students) and help them to release that potential toward common goals. This view of humans he termed "Theory Y" and holds that:
Work is as natural as play and rest. The average person does not inherently dislike work. Depending on conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction and, if so, it is performed voluntarily. On the other hand, when work is a form of punishment, it is avoided, if possible
People exercise self-direction if they are committed to the goals (they are not lazy)
Commitment to goals relates directly to the rewards associated with their achievement
People learn to accept and seek responsibility. Shirking responsibility and lack of ambition are not inherent in human nature, but are usually the consequences of experience
Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population. People are capable of using these abilities to solve problems
People have potential
Since it is human nature to be motivated, the responsibility for discovering how to realize the potential of the student lies with the instructor. How to mold a solid, healthy, productive relationship with a student depends on the instructor's knowledge of human behavior and needs. Being able to recognize factors that inhibit the learning process also helps the instructor in this process
Human Factors That Inhibit Learning:
Defense Mechanisms:
Biological Defense Mechanisms:
Biological defense mechanisms are physiological responses that protects or preserves organisms, thing "fight or flight"
The instructor needs to recognize the student’s apprehension about performing a maneuver and help the student gain the necessary skill level to feel comfortable with the maneuver. The instructor could take the procedure apart and demonstrate each stage of the maneuver. Allowing the student to then practice the stages at various heights should instill the confidence needed to perform the maneuver
Psychological Defense Mechanisms:
Psychological defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes used to protect oneself from anxiety, unpleasant emotions, or to provide a refuge from a situation with which the individual cannot currently cope, think of "selective memory" [Figure 1-4]
Instructors need to recognize when students attempt to project an image other than reality to ensure fear and mistakes can be learned from
When anxiety occurs, the mind tries to solve the problem or find an escape, but if these tactics do not work, defense mechanisms are triggered
Defense mechanisms share two common properties:
They often appear unconsciously
They tend to distort, transform, or otherwise falsify reality
Because reality is distorted, perception changes, which allows for a lessening of anxiety, with a corresponding reduction in tension
Repression and denial are two primary defense mechanisms
Repression:
Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind
The level of repression can vary from temporarily forgetting an uncomfortable thought to amnesia, where the events that triggered the anxiety are deeply buried. Repressed memories do not disappear and may reappear in dreams or slips of the tongue ("Freudian slips"). For example, a student pilot may have a repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly
Denial:
Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening
It is a form of repression through which stressful thoughts are banned from memory
Related to denial is minimization is when a person minimizes something, he or she accepts what happened, but in a diluted form
For example, the instructor finds a screwdriver on the wing of an aircraft the maintenance student was repairing and explains the hazards of foreign object damage (FOD). The student, unwilling to accept the reality that his or her inattention could have caused an aircraft accident, denies having been in a hurry the previous day. Or, the student minimizes the incident, accepting he or she left the tool but pointing out that nothing bad happened as a result of the action. Other defense mechanisms include but are not limited to the following:
Compensation:
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas. Through compensation, students often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more positive one. The "I’m not a fighter, I’m a lover" philosophy can be an example of compensation. Compensation involves substituting success in a realm of life other than the realm in which the person suffers a weakness
Projection:
Through projection, a person relegates the blame for personal shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions to others or attributes personal motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses to others
Example: The student pilot who fails a flight exam and says, "I failed because I had a poor examiner" believes the failure was not due to a lack of personal skill or knowledge
Rationalization:
Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable
Example: A student may justify a poor grade by claiming there was not enough time to learn the required information but does not admit to failing to join the class study group or taking the computer quiz offered by the instructor
Reaction Formation:
In reaction formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety
Example: a student may develop a who-cares-how other-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness and a hunger for acceptance
Fantasy:
Fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are
Example: lost in the fantasy, the student spends more time dreaming about being a successful airline pilot than working toward the goal
Displacement:
Displacement is the mechanism which results in an unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute
Example: the avionics student is angry with the instructor over a grade received, but fears displaying the anger could cause the instructor to lower the grade so they choose to express the anger toward another, safer person such as a spouse
Psychology textbooks or online references offer more in-depth information about defense mechanisms. While most defense mechanisms fall within the realm of normal behavior and serve a useful purpose, in some cases they may be associated with mental health problems. Defense mechanisms involve some degree of self-deception and distortion of reality. Thus, they alleviate the symptoms, not the causes, and do not solve problems. Moreover, because defense mechanisms operate on an unconscious level, they are not subject to normal conscious checks and balances. Once an individual realizes there is a conscious reliance on one of these devices, behavior ceases to be an unconscious adjustment mechanism and becomes, instead, an ineffective way of satisfying a need
It may be difficult for an instructor to identify excessive reliance on defense mechanisms by a student, but a personal crisis or other stressful event is usually the cause. For example, a death in the family, a divorce, or even a failing grade on an important test may trigger harmful defensive reactions. Physical symptoms such as a change in personality, angry outbursts, depression, or a general lack of interest may point to a problem. Drug or alcohol abuse also may become apparent. Less obvious indications may include social withdrawal, preoccupation with certain ideas, or an inability to concentrate
An instructor needs to be familiar with typical defense mechanisms and have some knowledge of related behavioral problems. A perceptive instructor can help by using common sense and discussing the problem with the student. The main objective should be to restore motivation and self-confidence. It should be noted that the human psyche is fragile and could be damaged by inept measures. Therefore, in severe cases involving the possibility of deep psychological problems, timely and skillful help is needed. In this event, the instructor should recommend that the student use the services of a professional counselor
Student Emotional Reactions:
While it is not necessary for a flight instructor to be a certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyze student behavior before and during each flight lesson. This ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate techniques for instruction
Anxiety:
Anxiety is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction. This is true because flying is a potentially threatening experience for those who are not accustomed to flying and the fear of falling is universal in human beings. Anxiety also is a factor in maintenance training because lives may depend on consistently doing the job right the first time. The following paragraphs are primarily concerned with flight instruction and student reactions
Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen, typically something with an uncertain outcome. It results from the fear of anything, real or imagined, which threatens the person who experiences it, and may have a potent effect on actions and the ability to learn from perceptions
The responses to anxiety range from a hesitancy to act to the impulse to do something even if it’s wrong. Some people affected by anxiety react appropriately, adequately, and more rapidly than they would in the absence of threat. Many, on the other hand, may freeze and be incapable of doing anything to correct the situation that has caused their anxiety. Others may do things without rational thought or reason. Both normal and abnormal reactions to anxiety are of concern to the flight instructor. The normal reactions are significant because they indicate a need for special instruction to relieve the anxiety. The abnormal reactions are even more important because they may signify a deep-seated problem
Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing the students' enjoyment of flying and by teaching them to cope with their fears. An effective technique is to treat fears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoring them. Keep in mind that anxiety for student pilots is usually associated with certain types of flight operations and maneuvers. Instructors should introduce these maneuvers with care, so that students know what to expect and what their reactions should be. When introducing stalls, for example, instructors should first review the aerodynamic principles and explain how stalls affect flight characteristics. Then, carefully describe the physical sensations to be expected, as well as the recovery procedures
Student anxiety can be minimized throughout training by emphasizing the benefits and pleasurable experiences that can be derived from flying, rather than by continuously citing the unhappy consequences of faulty performances. Safe flying practices should be presented as conducive to satisfying, efficient, uninterrupted operations, rather than as necessary only to prevent catastrophe
Normal Reactions to Stress:
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, when a threat is recognized or imagined, the brain alerts the body. The adrenal gland activates hormones, which prepare the body to meet the threat or to retreat from it—the fight or flight syndrome
Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training. Many responses are automatic, highlighting the need for proper training in emergency operations prior to an actual emergency. The affected individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of the surroundings
Abnormal Reactions to Stress:
Reactions to stress may produce abnormal responses in some people. With them, response to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at least inadequate. Their responses may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation
During flight instruction, instructors are normally the only ones who can observe students when they are under pressure. Instructors, therefore, are in a position to differentiate between safe and unsafe piloting actions. Instructors also may be able to detect potential psychological problems. The following student reactions are indicative of abnormal reactions to stress. None of them provides an absolute indication, but the presence of any of them under conditions of stress is reason for careful instructor evaluation:
Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over-cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions
Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression
Severe anger directed toward the flight instructor, service personnel, and others
In difficult situations, flight instructors must carefully examine student responses and their own responses to the students. These responses may be the normal products of a complex learning situation, but they also can be indicative of psychological abnormalities that inhibit learning or are potentially very hazardous to future piloting operations. [Figure 1-5]
A flight instructor who believes a student may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to refrain from instructing that student. In addition, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person does not continue flight training or become certificated as a pilot. To accomplish this, the following steps are available:
If an instructor believes that a student may have a disqualifying psychological defect, arrangements should be made for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the student, to conduct an evaluation flight. After the flight, the two instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or action is justified
The flight instructor’s primary legal responsibility concerns the decision whether to endorse the student to be competent for solo flight operations, or to make a recommendation for the practical test leading to certification as a pilot. If, after consultation with an unbiased instructor, the instructor believes that the student may have a serious psychological deficiency, such endorsements and recommendations must be withheld
Teaching the Adult Student:
While aviation instructors teach students of all ages
While the average aviation student age is over the age of 30 the aviation instructor needs to be versed in the needs of adult students
Adults as learners possess the following characteristics:
Adults who are motivated to seek out a learning experience do so primarily because they have a use for the knowledge or skill being sought (Learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself)
Adults seek out learning experiences in order to cope with specific life-changing events—marriage, divorce, a new job. They are ready to learn when they assume new roles
Adults are autonomous and self-directed; they need to be independent and exercise control
Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge and draw upon this reservoir of experience for learning
Adults are goal oriented
Adults are relevancy oriented. Their time perspective changes from one of postponed knowledge application to immediate application
Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work
As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect
The need to increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem is a strong secondary motivator for adult learners
Adults want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately
Instructors should:
Provide a training syllabus (see Chapter 8, Planning Instructional Activity) that is organized with clearly defined course objectives to show the student how the training helps him or her attain specific goals
Help students integrate new ideas with what they already know to ensure they keep and use the new information
Assume responsibility only for his or her own expectations, not for those of students. It is important to clarify and articulate all student expectations early on
Recognize the student’s need to control pace and start/stop time
Take advantage of the adult preference to selfdirect and self-design learning projects by giving the student frequent scenario based training (SBT) opportunities
Remember that self-direction does not mean isolation. Studies of self-directed learning indicate self-directed projects involve other people as resources, guides, etc.
Use books, programmed instruction, and computers which are popular with adult learners
Refrain from "spoon-feeding" the student
Set a cooperative learning climate
Create opportunities for mutual planning
An aviation student may be the retired business executive who always wanted to learn how to fly, an Army helicopter pilot who wants to learn how to fly an airplane, or a former automobile mechanic who decides to pursue avionics. These students may be financially stressed, or they may be financially secure. They may be healthy, but they may be experiencing such age-related problems as diminished hearing or eyesight. Whatever the personal circumstances of the student, he or she wants the learning experience to be problem-oriented, personalized, and the instructor to be accepting of the student’s need for self-direction and personal responsibility
Conclusion:
This chapter discussed how human behavior affects learning, human needs that must be met before students can learn, defense mechanisms students use to prevent learning, how adults learn, and the flight instructor’s role in determining a student’s future in the aviation community. For more information on these topics, it is recommended the instructor read a general educational psychology text or visit one of the many online sites devoted to education
A successful instructor learner relationships starts with understanding how human behavior affects learning
To ensure that learners continue to work hard, the instructor should:
Ask new learners about their aviation training goals.
Reward incremental successes in learning.
Present new challenges.
Occasionally remind learners about their own stated goals for aviation training.
Assure learners that learning plateaus are normal and that improvement will resume with continued effort.
To satisfy the law of readiness, instructors must assess a student's needs.
