Not every flight will be perfect, and emergencies may arise which require immediate pilot intervention
Ground Operations:
Aircraft Taxiing
All flights start and end with ground operations
Starting with a thorough preflight, pilots make an airworthiness determination to proceed with the flight
With an airworthiness determination and the flight a go, pilots conduct the started and run-up procedures to verify the operation of the powerplant and aircraft systems
In conjunction with ground checks and to get in position for takeoff, pilots must taxi across the airport surface area
As mentioned, all flights will end with ground operations, necessitating a specifed set of post-flight procedures
Aircraft Taxiing
Takeoff & Landing:
Takeoffs and landings are a straight forward concept, but their execution under various conditions can make them complex
Depending on wind direction, runway alignment, and any number of other variables, pilots may be required to execute different takeoff maneuverss to get airborne aand recover safely
Takeoffs and Climbs:
Takeoffs and climbs transition the pilot and aircraft from the ground to the flight environment
Not all takeoffs are equal however, as the environment and terminal area may require specific considerations
Although conditions rarely favor the use of a standard, or Normal Takeoff and Climb, the procedures nonetheless provide a baseline from which all other procedures base
One such example is variable wind direction relative to a static runway direction
Despite some airports having several runways aligned to the prevailing winds, the wind is rarely straight down the runway, which requires pilots to execute Crosswind Takeoff and Climb procedures
Shorter, often remote airfields require Short Field Takeoff and Climb procedures to be able to remain within the aircraft's limitations while pushing spacial limitations
Same as with takeoff, however, conditions will vary, which may call for the use of a Crosswind Approach and Landing to compensate for winds
Short Field Approach and Landing procedures allow pilots to maximize energy management to land the aircraft in the minimum amount of space
Many runways are paved, but those that are not carry special considerations which necessitate Soft Field Approach and Landing procedures to compensate
The key to a good landing, regardless of procedure flown, is a stabilized approach
When pilots fail to establish a stabilized approach or an unexpected condition develops like a fouled runway, pilots execute the rejected landing/go-around
Approaches to landing are all based in the principles of energy management
The no-flap and power-off-180 approach and landing procedures are procedures require pilot judgement based on standard procedures but under non-standard circumstances
These operations are standardized by procedure to allow pilots to train in the statistically most dangerous and difficult phase of flight
Ground Reference Maneuvers:
Airplane Flying Handbook, Effects of Wind During Turns
Ground reference maneuvers and their related objectives develop a high degree of pilot skill
Wind direction and velocity variations are the primary effects requiring corrections of the flight path during ground reference maneuvers [Figure 1]
Similar to a boat, wind directly influences the path that the airplane travels about the ground
Whenever the aircraft is in flight, the movement of the air directly affects the actual ground track of the airplane
Although few perform ground reference maneuvers regularly; the elements and principles involved in each apply to many operations
They aid the pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces acting on the airplane and in developing a fine control touch, coordination, and the division of attention necessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of the airplane
Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects:
Ground track or ground reference maneuvers are performed at a relatively low altitude while applying wind drift correction as needed to follow a predetermined track or path over the ground
Ground reference maneuvers are generally flown at approximately 600 to 1,000' AGL depending on the speed and type of airplane to a large extent
Consider the following:
The speed with relation to the ground should not be so apparent that events happen too rapidly
The airplane's radius of turn and path over the ground should be easily noted
Changes planned and effected as circumstances require
Drift should be easily discernible but not tax the student too much in making corrections
Objects on the ground should appear in their proportion and size
The altitude should be low enough to render any gain or loss apparent to the student but in no case lower than 500' above the highest obstruction
During these maneuvers, both the instructor and the student should be alert for available forced-landing fields
The area chosen should be away from communities, livestock, and groups of people to prevent possible annoyance or hazards
The low maneuvering altitudes limit the time available to search for a suitable field for landing in the event the need arises
Ground Reference Maneuvers:
To perform any ground reference maneuvers, the pilot must be familiar with the effects of wind drift
Next, pilots will take these lessons learned to perform turns around a point and eventually s-turns accurately
These maneuvers buildup to the rectangular course, which is preparation to enter the traffic pattern to practice takeoffs and landings
"Eights" demonstrate the interactions between maneuvers while developing a pilot's fine motor skills for turns and altitude changes about a known point:
Eights Along A Road develop the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing your attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground
Eights Across A Road continues building the skills associated with eights along a road, but adds a level of precision as the airplane should cross an intersection of roads or a specific point on a straight road
Eights On Pylons completes the series by perfecting the knowledge of the effect of the angle of bank on the radius of turn and adding a vertical dimension as the pivotal altitude
Cruise/Airborne Maneuvers:
Cruise starts with Straight-and-Level Flight that, while less dynamic than the terminal phases of flight, requires a unique set of skills to manage efficiently
Turn procedures introduce a lateral dimension to straight and level flight that demonstrate the complicated interaction of forces on an aircraft
Maneuvering during slow flight allows pilots to feel the performance associated with minimum controllable airspeed and the margins that can lead to a stall, especially in a turn
In all phases of flight across climbs, descents, airspeed changes, etc., pilots must practice trimming the aircraft, removing control pressures, reducing pilot workload, and improving the smoothness for passengers
Reducing AoA is the only way to start the recovery process and may be done by lowering the nose or increasing power, however in most aircraft, lowering the nose is the only logical step you have
Increase airspeed (lift)
Maintain coordinated use of controls
Types of Stalls:
Power-on (departure) stalls simulate insufficient airflow over the wing while configured for and flying the departure phase of flight
Power-off (approach) stalls are the opposite of power-on stalls, simulating insufficient airflow over the wing while configured for and flying the approach phase of flight
Related to stalling on approach is the risk of stalling when a go-around is initiated while the aircraft is configured for landing
Elevator trim stall therefore simulate the rapid increase of power applied to an aircraft trimmed to favor/maintain a nose-up attitude, thereby stalling the aircraft on when going around
Accelerated stalls can occur when the aircraft is under load, such as in a turn or high-performance maneuver that has the wing under load
Recoveries are by their nature flown at operational limitations, but overly aggressive or improperly flown stall recoveries can lead into secondary stalls exacerbating the stall by stalling again
In any case, stalling while not in coordinated flight risks a cross-control stall, leading to not only a loss of alttiude, but increased risk of a spin
Emergency:
When an emergency occurs, the pilot must remember to aviate, navigate, and communicate in that order
Maintain aircraft control
Analyze the situation and take corrective action
Land as soon as possible/practicable
The Pilot-in-Command during an emergency is the final authority
This authority applies to extenuating circumstances
Procedures, as written, are that way for a reason, and pilots should not blindly deviate without considering the entirety of the situation
When transferring controls from one pilot to another, it is critical to be assertive and conscious of good Crew Resource Management practices
Transfer controls using a "positive three-way" method:
Pilot flying states, "You have the controls"
The pilot flying continues to positively control the aircraft
Pilot not flying states, "I have the controls"
The pilot not flying puts their hands on the controls but is not yet the pilot flying
The original pilot flying states, "You have the controls"
At this point, the original pilot flying lets go of the controls while the new pilot flying assumes pilot responsibilities
There may be other variations of this to include shaking the stick, but the intent is there is always a pilot flying, and there can be no confusion to that fact
Consistently sit in such a way that your sight picture remains constant, that is your view outside of the aircraft, by which you reference the aircraft to the horizon, should be consistent
