Pilots determine airworthiness, starting with a thorough preflight to proceed with the flight.
With a determination made, pilots conduct starting procedures to verify the operation of the powerplant and aircraft systems.
With ground checks nearly complete, pilots must taxi across the airport surface area to conduct the run-up and prepare for takeoff.
As mentioned, all flights will end with ground operations, necessitating a specified set of post-flight procedures.
Aircraft Taxiing
Takeoff & Landing:
Takeoffs and landings are straightforward concepts, but their execution under various conditions can make them complex.
Depending on wind direction, runway alignment, and other variables, pilots may be required to execute different takeoff maneuvers to get airborne and recover safely.
Takeoffs and Climbs:
Takeoffs and climbs transition the pilot and aircraft from the ground to the flight environment.
However, not all takeoffs are equal, as the environment and terminal area may require specific considerations.
Although conditions rarely favor using a Normal Takeoff and Climb, the procedures provide a baseline.
One such example is variable wind direction relative to a static runway direction.
Despite some airports having several runways aligned to the prevailing winds, the wind is rarely straight down the runway, which requires pilots to execute Crosswind Takeoff and Climb procedures.
Shorter, often remote airfields require Short Field Takeoff and Climb procedures to remain within the aircraft's limitations while pushing spacial limitations.
A stabilized approach is the key to a good landing, regardless of the procedure flown.
When pilots fail to establish a stabilized approach or an unexpected condition develops, like a fouled runway, pilots execute the rejected landing/go-around
Approaches to landing are all based in the principles of energy management.
Standardized procedures allow pilots to train in the statistically most dangerous and challenging phase of flight.
Ground Reference Maneuvers:
Airplane Flying Handbook, Effects of Wind During Turns
Ground reference maneuvers and their related objectives develop a high degree of pilot skill.
Wind direction and velocity variations are the primary effects requiring flight path corrections during ground reference maneuvers. [Figure 1]
Like a boat, wind directly influences the path the airplane travels about the ground.
Whenever the aircraft is in flight, the movement of the air directly affects the aircraft's actual ground track.
Although few perform ground reference maneuvers regularly, the elements and principles involved in each apply to many operations.
They aid the pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces acting on the airplane and developing a delicate control touch, coordination, and the division of attention necessary for accurate and safe airplane maneuvering.
Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects:
Ground track or ground reference maneuvers are performed at a relatively low altitude while applying wind drift correction to follow a predetermined track or path over the ground.
Ground reference maneuvers are generally flown at approximately 600 to 1,000' AGL, depending on the speed and type of airplane to a large extent.
Consider the following:
Drift should be easily discernible but not taxing the pilot to make corrections.
Objects on the ground should appear in their proportion and size.
The altitude should be low enough to make any gain or loss apparent to the student, but it should not be lower than 500' above the highest obstruction.
During ground reference maneuvers, the instructor and the student should be alert for available forced-landing fields.
The area chosen should be away from communities, livestock, and groups of people to prevent possible annoyance or hazards.
The low maneuvering altitudes limit the time available to search for a suitable field for landing if the need arises.
Ground Reference Maneuver Procedures:
To perform any ground reference maneuvers, the pilot must be familiar with the effects of wind drift
Next, pilots will take these lessons learned to perform turns around a point and eventually s-turns accurately.
These maneuvers build to the rectangular course,, preparing pilots to fly the traffic pattern to practice takeoffs and landings.
"Eights" demonstrate the interactions between maneuvers while developing a pilot's fine motor skills for turns and altitude changes about a known point:
Eights along a road develops the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing your attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground.
Eights across a road continues building the skills associated with eights along a road but adds precision as the airplane should cross an intersection of roads or a specific point on a straight road.
Eights on pylons completes the series by perfecting the knowledge of the effect of the angle of bank on the radius of turn and adding a vertical dimension as the pivotal altitude.
Cruise/Airborne Maneuvers:
Cruise starts with performing Straight-and-Level Flight, which, while less dynamic than the terminal phases of flight, requires a unique set of skills to manage efficiently.
Turn procedures introduce a lateral dimension to straight and level flight that demonstrates the complicated interaction of forces on an aircraft.
Maneuvering during slow flight allows pilots to feel the performance associated with minimum controllable airspeed and the margins that can lead to a stall, especially in turn.
While turns illustrate the dynamic forces acting upon an aircraft, steep turns take those forces to the next level.
In all phases of flight across climbs, descents, airspeed changes, etc., pilots must practice trimming the aircraft, removing control pressures, reducing pilot workload, and improving the smoothness of flight.
Reducing AoA is the only way to start the recovery process and may be done by lowering the nose or increasing power, however in most aircraft, lowering the nose is the only logical step you have
Increase airspeed (lift)
Maintain coordinated use of controls
Types of Stalls:
Power-on (departure) stalls simulate insufficient airflow over the wing while configured for and flying the departure phase of flight
Power-off (approach) stalls are the opposite of power-on stalls, simulating insufficient airflow over the wing while configured for and flying the approach phase of flight
Related to stalling on approach is the risk of stalling when a go-around is initiated while the aircraft is configured for landing
Elevator trim stall therefore simulate the rapid increase of power applied to an aircraft trimmed to favor/maintain a nose-up attitude, thereby stalling the aircraft on when going around
Accelerated stalls can occur when the aircraft is under load, such as in a turn or high-performance maneuver that has the wing under load
Recoveries are by their nature flown at operational limitations, but overly aggressive or improperly flown stall recoveries can lead into secondary stalls exacerbating the stall by stalling again
In any case, stalling while not in coordinated flight risks a cross-control stall, leading to not only a loss of alttiude, but increased risk of a spin
Emergency:
When an emergency occurs, the pilot must remember to aviate, navigate, and communicate in that order
Maintain aircraft control
Analyze the situation and take corrective action
Land as soon as possible/practicable
The Pilot-in-Command during an emergency is the final authority
This authority applies to extenuating circumstances
Procedures, as written, are that way for a reason, and pilots should not blindly deviate without considering the entirety of the situation
When transferring controls from one pilot to another, it is critical to be assertive and conscious of good Crew Resource Management practices
Transfer controls using a "positive three-way" method:
Pilot flying states, "You have the controls"
The pilot flying continues to positively control the aircraft
Pilot not flying states, "I have the controls"
The pilot not flying puts their hands on the controls but is not yet the pilot flying
The original pilot flying states, "You have the controls"
At this point, the original pilot flying lets go of the controls while the new pilot flying assumes pilot responsibilities
There may be other variations of this to include shaking the stick, but the intent is there is always a pilot flying, and there can be no confusion to that fact
Consistently sit in such a way that your sight picture remains constant, that is your view outside of the aircraft, by which you reference the aircraft to the horizon, should be consistent
