Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the process of coordinated action among flight and ground crew members enabling effective interaction while performing flight and ground tasks
While professional pilots will often fly with a crew-concept, most General Aviation pilots will not, leading to the development of Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
As termed by the FAA, is still CRM because you have resources out there to help you such as Air Traffic Controllers, Flight Service Stations, base frequencies, and other pilots
Regardless of how many people are in the aircraft, these tools are always available and should be utilized as appropriate
Good crew coordination can increase effectiveness, maximize resources, and optimize risk management
Human Resources:
Human resources include everyone routinely working with the pilot to ensure flight safety
Weather briefers, flight line personnel, maintenance personnel, crew members, pilots, and air traffic personnel
This is accomplished by using the key components of the communication process: inquiry, advocacy, and assertion
Pilots must recognize the need to seek enough information from these resources to make a valid decision
After the necessary information has been gathered, the pilot's decision must be passed on to those concerned, such as air traffic controllers, crew members, and passengers
The pilot may have to request assistance from others and be assertive to safely resolve some situations
Equipment:
Equipment in many of today's aircraft includes automated flight and navigation systems
These automatic systems, while providing relief from many routine flight deck tasks, present a different set of problems for pilots
The automation intended to reduce pilot workload essentially removes the pilot from the process of managing the aircraft, thereby reducing situational awareness, leading to complacency
Information from these systems needs to be continually monitored to ensure proper situational awareness
Pilots should be thoroughly familiar with the operation of and information provided by all systems used
It is essential that pilots be aware not only of equipment capabilities, but also equipment limitations in order to manage those systems effectively and safely
Information Workload:
Information workloads and automated systems, such as autopilots, need to be properly managed to ensure a safe flight
The pilot flying in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) is faced with many tasks, each with a different level of importance to the outcome of the flight
Example: a pilot preparing to execute an instrument approach to an airport needs to review the approach chart, prepare the aircraft for the approach and landing, complete checklists, obtain information from Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or Air Traffic Control (ATC), and set the navigation radios and equipment
The pilot who effectively manages his or her workload will complete as many of these tasks as early as possible to preclude the possibility of becoming overloaded by last minute changes and communication priorities in the later, more critical stages of the approach
Routine tasks delayed until the last minute can contribute to the pilot becoming overloaded and stressed, resulting in erosion of performance
Effective resource management includes recognizing hazardous situations and attitudes, decision-making to promote good judgment and headwork, and managing the situation to ensure the safe outcome of the flight
Task Management:
Pilots have a limited capacity for information
Once information flow exceeds the pilot's ability to mentally process the information any additional information will become unattended or displace other tasks and information already being processed
This is termed channel capacity and once reached only two alternatives exist:
Shed the unimportant tasks, or
Perform all tasks at a less than optimal level
Like an electrical circuit being overloaded, either the consumption must be reduced or a circuit failure is experienced
The pilot who effectively manages the tasks and properly prioritizes them will have a successful flight
This unnecessary focus displaces capability and prevents the pilot's ability to appreciate tasks of greater importance
Figure 1: Instrument Flying Handbook, The Margin of Safety
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Skills and Behaviors:
Acronyms:
DAMCLAS ("Damn Class")
SADCLAM ("Sad Clam")
MCSALAD ("McSalad")
Decision Making:
Ability to use logical and sound judgment based on information available
Effective decisions can be made by:
Assessing the problem
Verifying information
Identifying solutions
Anticipating consequences of decisions
Telling others of the decision and rationale
Evaluating the decision
Improved through teamwork, extra time, alert crew, decision strategies and experience
Assertiveness:
Willingness to actively participate
Ability to state and maintain position
Provide info without being asked
Make suggestions
Ask questions
Confront ambiguities
Maintain position when challenged
State opinions
Refuse unreasonable request
Accept the most conservative response to the situation until more information is available
Two challenge rule:
If the pilot does not respond to two demands (i.e. "wave-off, wave-off!") take the controls
Avoid the sandbag syndrome and speak up when necessary
Sandbag Syndrome:
Comfort feeling that the other crew member has the situation under control
No pilot is above the momentary lapse of judgment or situational awareness
Stay alert and speak up when necessary
Mission Analysis:
Ability to coordinate, allocate, and monitor crew and aircraft resources
Organize and plan for what will occur
Monitor the situation
Review and provide feedback of what has occurred
Communication:
Ability to clearly and accurately send and acknowledge information, instructions, commands, feedback
Important to: conduct effective missions, avoid mishaps, pass info, maintain situational awareness
Sender: Communicate clearly, convey info accurately, concisely, timely, request verification or feedback, verbalize plans
Receiver: Acknowledge communication, repeat, paraphrase, clarify info, provide useful feedback
Leadership:
Ability to direct and coordinate activities of crew, and stimulate them to work as a team
Direct and coordinate crew
Delegate tasks
Ensure crew understands expectations
Focus attention on crucial aspects
Keep crew informed of mission information
Provide feedback on performance
Create and maintain professional atmosphere
Adaptability/Flexibility:
Ability to alter a course of action to meet situation demands
Alter Behavior
Be open and receptive
Help others
Maintain constructive behavior under pressure
Adapt to internal and external changes
Adaptability is required when transitions occur, a crew-member is incapacitated or when interactions are strained
Situational Awareness:
What is happening in the cockpit and mission?
Detect and comment on deviations
Provide advance info, identify potential problems
Demonstrate awareness of task performance and mission status
Prepare through a comprehensive brief
Acknowledge potential problems
Use all information sources and update and revise your flight image
Situational awareness is critical in our ability to respond effectively
Combat loss of Situational Awareness by:
Actively questioning and evaluating your mission progress
Use assertive behaviors when necessary
Analyze your situation and Communicate!
Single-Pilot Resource Management:
While CRM focuses on pilots operating in crew environments, many of the concepts apply to single-pilot operations
SRM is defined as the art and science of managing all the resources (both on-board the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior to and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight. SRM includes the concepts of ADM, risk management (RM), task management (TM), automation management (AM), controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness, and situational awareness (SA)
SRM training helps the pilot maintain situational awareness by managing the automation and associated aircraft control and navigation tasks
This enables the pilot to accurately assess and manage risk and make accurate and timely decisions
SRM is all about helping pilots learn how to gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
Although the flight is coordinated by a single person and not an onboard flight crew, the use of available resources such as auto-pilot and air traffic control (ATC) replicates the principles of CRM
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) is about how to gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
Learning how to identify problems, analyze the information, and make informed and timely decisions is not as straight forward as the training involved in learning specific maneuvers
Learning how to judge a situation and “how to think” in the endless variety of situations encountered while flying out in the "real world" is more difficult
There is no one right answer in ADM, rather each pilot is expected to analyze each situation in light of experience level, personal minimums, and current physical and mental readiness level, and make his or her own decision
Conclusion:
CRM enables the use of all available resources and communications to provide safe operations through systematic collaboration
The success or failure of CRM rests ultimately with each individual performing duties as aircrew
Maintain sterile cockpit as appropriate, practice cockpit management, question the unusual, and listen-don't anticipate
Optimal CRM training is integrated, research-based, and skill-oriented, incorporating the Information, Demonstration, Practice, and Feedback Methodology
Aircrew shall exhibit thorough knowledge of self, aircraft, team, environment, the seven critical skills, and risk to employ sound and logical judgment in the prevention of human errors
Human error is the leading causal factor in aviation mishaps
Additional human error-based training should complement CRM training
More information is available through the U.S. Navy CRM Website:
