Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures
Stalls occur when the airflow over an aircraft's control surface has been interrupted sufficiently to cause separation.
Introduction to Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures
- Stalls occur when the airflow over an aircraft's control surface has been interrupted sufficiently to cause airflow separation.
- Pilots must therefore be aware of the conditions which increase stall potential, especially when operating in the region of reverse command.
- Although unintentional stalls are never desirable, understanding stall characteristics allow a pilot to recognize the situation so as to provide the appropriate recovery procedure.
- In training, pilots will perform approaches to stalls to practice the various regimes where stalling may occur, and how to recovery from each.
- There are six principle stall maneuvers which include power-off, power-on, cross-controlled, elevator-trim, and secondary stalls.
- Power-off stalls simulate a stall under low-powered conditions like during a normal approach to landing.
- Recoveries therefore train a pilot to make prompt, positive, and effective recoveries with a minimum loss of altitude.
- Power-on stalls simulate a stall under higher powered conditions like during a normal takeoff and departure.
- Recoveries emphasize how aircraft attitude impacts stall potential, again simulating a stall close to the ground, and trains a pilot to recover with a minimum loss of altitude.
- Elevator Trim Stalls demonstrate the effects of not maintaining positive airplane control during a go-around/rejected landing.
- Recoveries emphasize aircraft configuration as it similarly applies to a power-on stall situation, requiring swift identification and recovery application.
- Cross-controlled stalls simulate stalls that may not only occur in a turn, but an uncoordinated turn.
- Recoveries emphasize the importance of coordinated turns and the stall characteristics associated with flight controls deflected at the time of the stall.
- Accelerated stalls demonstrate the effect of aggressive maneuvering and the ability to abruptly break airflow.
- Secondary stalls demonstrate aggressive recoveries that have the potential to induce another stall after recovery from a preceding stall.
- Recoveries emphasize smooth recovery procedures so as not to aggravate a stall condition.
- Power-off stalls simulate a stall under low-powered conditions like during a normal approach to landing.
- Test your understanding of Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures by completing the knowledge quiz, applying your knowledge in the interactive scenario, comparing your performance against the applicable Airman Certification Standards, and concluding with the topic summary to reinforce the key concepts before moving on to the next lesson.
WARNING:
All procedures are GENERALIZED.
Use the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) procedures for specific aircraft performance and limitations.
and/or current Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures Key Highlights
- A stall occurs when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack; it can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting.
- Aircraft weight, center of gravity, power, configuration, and wing design influence stall speed, stall characteristics, and recovery.
- Increased load factor raises stall speed; bank angle alone does not determine stall risk.
- Icing and wing contamination can change stall behavior and reduce the margin to a stall.
- Recognize an approaching stall through buffet, reduced control effectiveness, and warning cues; an AOA display does not override evidence that the wing is approaching a stall.
- Uncoordinated flight can lead to a spin during a stall, making yaw control and coordinated recovery inputs essential.
- Power-off, power-on, accelerated, cross-controlled, elevator-trim, and secondary stalls require recognition of their different setups and hazards.
- Follow the aircraft-specific recovery procedure and promptly reduce angle of attack below critical; power alone cannot recover a wing that remains stalled.
- Use appropriate power and coordinated controls, manage configuration changes, and avoid excessive back pressure that can cause a secondary stall.
- Brief stall practice with adequate height, clear recovery space, defined recovery cues, control responsibilities, and stop criteria; low-altitude stalls may leave insufficient recovery room.
Defining Aircraft Stalls
- Stalls evoke images of an engine turning off, like in a car with mechanical trouble.
- In aviation, however, stalls are an aerodynamic condition that occur when smooth airflow over the airplane's wings is disrupted, resulting in loss of lift
- The loss of lift causes that stalled surface to "stop flying"
- While the concept of a stall sounds like a terrifying experience, it is predictable and therefore a subject of training syllabi to identify risk factors, recognize its occurrence, and perform corrective actions to return the airfoil to its normal flight condition.
Effects of Angle of Attack on Stall Performance
- The angle of attack is fundamental to understanding many aspects of airplane performance, stability, and control.
- AOA is the acute angle measured between the relative wind or flight path and the chord of the airfoil. []
- Flight Path: Path described by its center of gravity as it moves through an air mass.
- Relative Wind: The airflow the airplane experiences as it moves through the air.
- Angle of Incidence: The chord line of the wing is angled up when attached to the fuselage.
- Pitch Attitude: Angle between an airplane's longitudinal axis and the horizon.
- Equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the flight path.
- Do not infer flightpath, relative wind, or angle of attack from pitch attitude.
- Whenever the control yoke or stick moves forward or aft, the AOA changes.
- As the AOA increases, lift increases (all other factors being equal).
- When the aircraft reaches the maximum AOA, lift begins to diminish rapidly.
- The rapid diminishment of lift is the stalling AOA, known as the maximum critical lift ("CL-MAX") or the critical AOA.
- The CL increases until reaching the critical AOA, then decreases rapidly with any further increase in the AOA. [/]
- Engineers measure the lift created (or reduced in the case of negative AOA) with the coefficient of lift, which relates to the AOA.
- Every airplane has a specific angle of attack at which maximum lift occurs, known as the critical angle of attack.
- The critical angle of attack is that angle at which, regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or weight, the airfoil will stall.
- Factors like weight, altitude, and airspeed impact AOA required to maintain flight, but the critical AOA remains the same since the airfoil remains the same (i.e. these factors impact margin).
- With an understanding that the angle of attack is the wing's relative "bite" of the air, this can put airflow principles into perspective.
Effects of Airflow/Airspeed on Stall Performance
- To better understand how air flows over a wing, you must first understand its characteristics.
- Airflow layers can be either laminar or turbulent.
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Boundary-Layer:
- The boundary layer is the layer of airflow over a surface that demonstrates local airflow retarding due to viscosity (as it gives up kinetic energy to friction).
- The air molecules in the boundary layer (surface layer) remain stationary relative to the surface; however, the layer above them moves over the stagnant molecules because a third layer near the free stream pulls it along.
- The velocities of the layers increase as the distance from the surface increases, until they reach the free stream velocity.
- The total distance between the aircraft surface and the free stream velocity is the boundary layer.
- At subsonic levels, the cumulative layers are about the thickness of a playing card, increasing in thickness as they move aft.
- When air flows across any surface, friction develops.
- As a viscous fluid resists flow or shearing, the adjacent layer of air slows.
- Succeeding streamlines slow down less until eventually, some outer streamline reaches the free airstream velocity.
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Laminar Flow:
- The air moves smoothly along in a streamline.
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Turbulent Flow:
- Streamlines that break up, causing the flow to be disorganized and irregular.
- Produces higher friction than laminar.
- Adheres more effectively to the surface of the airflow, thereby delaying separation.
- Traction pads and even bugs can disrupt laminar flow, affecting aircraft performance.
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Pressure Gradients:
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Favorable Pressure Gradient:
- A Favorable Pressure Gradient (FPG) helps the boundary layer adhere to the surface by maintaining its high kinetic energy.
- As air flows aft from the point of maximum thickness toward the trailing edge (low to high static pressure), it encounters an adverse pressure gradient.
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Adverse Pressure Gradient:
- An Adverse Pressure Gradient (APG) impedes the flow of the boundary layer.
- Strongest during high lift conditions and at high AOAs, in particular.
- If the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the APG, then the lower levels of the boundary layer will stagnate and separate as airflow reverses.
- As separation progresses toward the leading edge of the wing, the net suction decreases, and CL decreases, resulting in a stall.
- Even at low angles of attack, there will be a small APG behind the point of maximum thickness.
- As the separation progresses forward toward the leading edge of the wing with increasing AOA, eventually, the air cannot conform to the sharp turn.
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Airspeed:
- As airspeed increases, airflow generally becomes more laminar, which helps maintain FPG.
- As airspeed decreases (AOA increases), airflow generally begins to separate, becoming turbulent, which creates a phenomenon known as APG.
- Higher airspeeds also reduce the angle of attack required, increasing stall margin.
- The high angle of attack at low airspeeds most commonly results in stall conditions.
- Recall aircraft can exceed the critical angle of attack at any airspeed.
- Indicated stall speed remains approximately constant as density altitude increases because the airspeed indicator responds to dynamic pressure.
Effects of Load Factor on Stall Performance
- Load factor is the weight the wings are supporting. []
- Load factor is generally not calculated as part of preflight; however, it has a close relation to stall speed, which is very important.
- As the load factor increases, the stall speed increases.
- In level flight, the load factor is the ratio of the aircraft's weight to its lift.
- The aircraft is experiencing a "1-g" load factor or 1 times the force of gravity.
- As you increase the angle of bank, however, a pilot must pull back on the controls to avoid descending.
- This is due to the loss of vertical lift, which then raises the load factor.
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Calculating Load Factor:
- Pilots will generally rely on the 60° angle of bank as a 2-Gs rule of thumb; performance charts use the technical data considered.
- Still, pilots can be more precise if they choose to use some relatively simple math.
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Load Factor Formula:
- Load Factor Formula: Load Factor = 1 / cos(angle of bank).
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Load Factor Calculation Example:
- Conditions: Given an angle of bank of 60°.
- Load Factor = 1 / cos(60).
- Load Factor = 1 / 0.5.
- Load Factor = 2.
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Load Factor Chart Example:
- Start with the 60° mark at the bottom of the chart and move up until you intercept the load factor reference line. []
- Move over to the left and see the load factor imposed on the aircraft.
- You should come up to approximately 2.
- Pilots will generally rely on the 60° angle of bank as a 2-Gs rule of thumb; performance charts use the technical data considered.
Effects of Angle of Bank on Stall Performance
- As mentioned above, stall speed increases exponentially with load factor due to a loss in the vertical component of lift.
- This is the principle behind accelerated stalls.
- Increasing the bank angle increases the load factor, which in turn increases the stall speed. []
- Correspondingly, decreasing the bank angle decreases the load factor, which in turn decreases the stall speed.
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Calculating Stall Speed:
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Stall Speed Banked Formula:
- Stall Speed Banked = [Stall Speed Level x Square Root of Load Factor].
Conditions:
- Given an aircraft with a stall speed of 48 knots with a load factor of 2 (60° angle of bank).
Calculation:
- Stall speed banked = [Stall Speed level x Square Root of Load Factor].
- Square root of 2 = 1.41.
- Stall speed banked = 48 x 1.41.
- Stall speed banked = 68 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS).
Chart:
[]- Look at the 60° mark at the bottom of the chart and move up until you intercept the stall speed increase reference line.
- Move over to the left and see the percent increase in stall speed.
- You should come up with an increase in stall speed of approximately 41%
- Stall Speed Banked = [Stall Speed Level x percent increase in stall speed].
- Stall Speed Banked = 48 x 1.41.
- Stall Speed Banked = 68 KIAS.
- You should come up with an increase in stall speed of approximately 41%
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Effects of Power on Stall Performance
- Stall practice is necessary to recognize when the aircraft is behind the power curve (sometimes referred to as a region of reverse command) and to learn how to recover successfully.
- The aircraft is said to be operating behind the power curve whenever it is flying below the best endurance speed.
- Best endurance is the minimum power required to maintain level flight, which typically occurs in Cessna 172s at about 60 knots.
- Pitch and power remain interrelated throughout the flight envelope.
- Elevator input establishes angle of attack and the associated airspeed, while power affects the airplane's available energy and vertical speed.
- The region of reverse command describes the airplane's changed performance response at low airspeed—not a literal reversal of the flight controls—because progressively slower level flight requires progressively more power.
- Said differently, when behind the power curve, more power is required to overcome drag.
- Pilots will operate both behind and ahead of the power curve throughout the flight, with the most critical terminal phases of takeoff and landing occurring when the aircraft is behind the power curve.
Effects of Weight/Center of Gravity on Stall Performance
- Control surfaces stall because they exceed their angle of attack.
- Pilots increase angles of attack to support the flight conditions, the most basic of which is weight.
- As weight increases, stall speed increases, as more lift is required to maintain level flight.
- Correspondingly, as weight decreases, less weight is required to maintain level flight, resulting in a decrease in stall speed.
- The center of gravity (CG) indirectly affects how an aircraft stalls and its performance.
- As the center of gravity moves forward, the aircraft must increase lift, and therefore, the stall speed increases.
- Correspondingly, as the center of gravity moves aft, less downforce is required, and stall speed decreases.
- If an aircraft stalls for a forward CG, it is easier to recover because the nose will tend to drop.
- An aircraft with an aft CG will tend not to drop the nose, and therefore, stall recovery will be delayed (more altitude lost).
- Weight and balance calculations performed during preflight planning indirectly inform stall performance by providing pilots with an expectation of how the aircraft will behave.
Effects of Coordinated Flight on Stall Performance
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Stalls in Coordinated Flight:
- If the coordination of the turn at the time of the stall is accurate, the airplane's nose will pitch away from the pilot just as it does in a straight flight stall.
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Stalls in Uncoordinated Flight:
- If an airplane stalls while yawed or otherwise uncoordinated, the unequal conditions at the wings can produce a rapid roll and may lead to a spin.
- A skidding base-to-final turn is especially hazardous: excess inside rudder increases yaw while back pressure may move the wing toward its critical angle of attack, leaving little altitude for recovery.
- Bank angle alone does not define the hazard. Angle of attack, load factor, coordination, airspeed, configuration, and pilot inputs all affect the available stall margin.
- Maintain coordinated flight and go around rather than forcing an overshoot correction with excessive rudder or bank. If a stall develops, reduce angle of attack and follow the aircraft-specific recovery procedure.
Effects of Stall Speed on Stall Performance
- As AOA increases up to CL MAX AOA, True Airspeed (TAS) decreases to a point where it cannot be any slower than stall speed (Vs).
- Airspeeds may change based on weight and configuration, but units of AOA remain the same.
- You can stall at any airspeed.
- Going too slow causes high AOA, while going too fast causes shock waves on aircraft not designed for supersonic or even transonic flight, causing the same disruption as high AOA.
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Weight:
- As weight decreases, so does stall speed, as less lift is required.
- Dropping a payload or just using fuel decreases stall speed and, thus, approach speed (AOA approaches).
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Altitude:
- Higher altitude results in fewer air molecules, so a higher TAS is required; however, indicated airspeed remains the same.
- Increased altitude results in increased stall speed.
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Angle of Bank:
- As you increase your angle of bank, stall speed increases due to the decreased vertical component of lift. []
- To compensate, the pilot raises the angle of attack to produce more lift until the aircraft stalls (at a lower speed).
- See turns.
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Power Off/On:
- Power-on conditions will have lower stall speeds because lift generation is supported by the vertical component of thrust.
- Additionally, with the power, you will induce airflow over the wings.
Effects of Aircraft Design on Stall Performance
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Wing Tailoring:
- Wing tailoring makes stalling characteristics more predictable by attempting to stall the root first.
- Power-on stalls may tend to stall at the tip first due to induced lift.
- With the wings stalling at the root first, the aircraft maintains some aileron authority.
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Geometric Twist/Washout:
- A decrease in the angle of incidence from the wing root to the wingtip. []
- The wing gradually twists downward, decreasing its AOA.
- A decrease in the angle of incidence from the wing root to the wingtip. []
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Aerodynamic Twist (Section Variation):
- A gradual change in airfoil shape results in a decrease in camber from root to tip and/or by reducing the chord.
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Stall Fences:
- Redirect the airflow along the chord.
- Allows the wing to achieve a higher AOA without stalling (delaying tip stall).
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Vortex Generators:
- Vortex generators enhance turbulent flow over the wings, thereby delaying the separation of the flow.
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Stall Strips:
- A sharply angled piece of metal at the root section to induce a stall at the root. []
- Subsonic airflow cannot follow sharp contour changes.
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Flaps/Slats:
- Lowering flaps decreases stall speed and increases drag.
- Raising flaps increases stall speed back to Vs speed while also decreasing drag.
- Consider the impacts of configuration changes (and, more importantly, the stall speed) when in a low, slow, and potentially go-around situation.
- The same principle applies to flaps as to slats, although slat deployment is generally automatic.
Effects of Icing on Stall Performance
- Stalls due to icing are particularly insidious, as the indications may not be present or may be entirely different from those of other causes.
- Icing causes the aircraft to stall at a lower-than-normal angle of attack, potentially before the pilot can recognize an abnormal condition.
- Icing-related stalls may not have an accompanying stall horn due to the frozen position of the indicator or because the aircraft could stall at a lower-than-normal angle of attack.
- Stall speed may increase by as much as 20 knots.
- Pilots may experience lightness in the controls, difficulty trimming, or pilot-induced oscillations (PIO).
- FAA Notice (8900.267) Focused Review of Flightcrew Member Training for Ice-Contaminated Tailplane Stall or on the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) provides aircraft certification information (if certified).
- Slow usually indicates wing stall, whereas fast usually indicates tail stall.
Stall Recognition
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Feel:
- The pilot will feel control pressures change as speed reduces.
- With progressively less resistance on the control surfaces, the pilot must use larger control movements to get the desired airplane response.
- The pilot will notice that the airplane's reaction time to control movement increases.
- Just before the stall occurs, buffeting, uncommanded rolling, or vibrations may begin to occur.
- If installed, rudder pedals or stick shakers will engage leading up to a stall.
- The pilot will feel control pressures change as speed reduces.
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Vision:
- Since aircraft can stall in any attitude, vision is not a foolproof indicator of an impending stall.
- However, maintaining pitch awareness is essential.
- If installed, warning lights will illuminate before a stall occurs.
- Since aircraft can stall in any attitude, vision is not a foolproof indicator of an impending stall.
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Hearing:
- As speed decreases, the pilot should notice a change in the sound made by the air flowing along the airplane's structure.
- If installed, horns or buzzers will sound to alert the pilot to a stall.
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Kinesthesia:
- The physical sensation (sometimes referred to as "seat of the pants" sensations) of changes in direction or speed is an essential indicator to the trained and experienced pilot in visual flight.
- This sensitivity can warn the pilot of an impending stall.
- The physical sensation (sometimes referred to as "seat of the pants" sensations) of changes in direction or speed is an essential indicator to the trained and experienced pilot in visual flight.
Stall Warning and AOA Indicator Limitations
An installed angle-of-attack indicator depends on its installation, calibration, and operating limitations. Incorrect calibration can make the indicated margin misleading. Before interpreting the display after changing flap configuration, establish whether the system's calibration and configuration sensing support that configuration.
Wing contamination can change stall behavior, while an obstructed or iced AOA sensor can corrupt the indication. A reassuring display does not override buffet, deteriorating control response, or other evidence of an approaching stall. Respond to the hazardous flight condition using the aircraft procedure and cross-check the indications.
A briefed full-stall training exercise has a specific setup, recovery point, altitude margin, and instructor supervision as appropriate. During normal operations, respond promptly to an unexpected stall warning; do not deliberately wait for a full stall.
Recovery priority is to reduce angle of attack below critical. The Max - Relax - Level mnemonic does not override the aircraft procedure or mean delaying angle-of-attack reduction while adding power. If appropriate maximum power is already set, confirm it while promptly reducing AOA and restoring coordinated control. Power alone cannot recover a wing that remains stalled.
Reference: FAA Airplane Flying Handbook, Chapter 5: Maintaining Aircraft Control.
Common Training Aircraft Stall Warning System Characteristics
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Piper Arrow:
- Activated by a lift detector on the left wing.
- Activates 5 to 10 knots before stall.
- The warning horn sounds at 90Hz.
Stall Avoidance
- Avoid prolonged flight near the stall and maintain an adequate angle-of-attack margin
- Remain within the aircraft flight manual or pilot's operating handbook limitations and maintain appropriate margins for the conditions
- Avoid abrupt or excessive control inputs, especially when the airplane is heavily loaded or turning, because an accelerated stall can occur above the published stall speed
- Maintain coordinated flight, particularly during the base-to-final turn, and go around rather than using excessive rudder or bank to correct an overshoot
Approaches to Stalls Maneuvers
- Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL.
- Commence a clearing turn.
- While maintaining heading, reduce power and adjust pitch and trim to maintain altitude.
- For Dirty Configuration:
- Advance the propeller control to full forward (high rpm) as required..
- While maintaining altitude, slowly establish the pitch attitude, power setting, and, if applicable, bank (15-30°) that would induce a stall.
- At the first indication of an impending stall, calling "stalling" and initiate recovery, maintaining heading while smoothly and continuously increasing power to full and adjusting pitch to maintain altitude (trim).
- For Dirty Configuration:
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor.
- As airspeed increases, raise the flaps in increments. to 10°:
- An overly abrupt flap retraction will result in a dramatic loss of lift and possibly a stall.
- As airspeed increases, but remains below VLO, raise the landing gear.
- At or above Vx, retract flaps to 0°.
- Approaching cruise airspeed, set cruise power.
- Re-trim as necessary.
- Complete the Cruise Flow/Checklist.
Multiengine Full Stall Considerations
- It is not recommended that full stalls be practiced unless a qualified flight instructor is present.
- A power-off or power-on full stall should only be practiced in a structured lesson with clear learning objectives and cautions discussed.
- The goals of the training are (a) to provide the pilots the experience of the handling characteristics and dynamic cues (e.g., buffet, roll off) near and at full stall and (b) to reinforce the proper application of the stall recovery procedures.
- Given the associated risk of asymmetric thrust at high angles of attack and low rudder effectiveness due to low airspeeds, this reinforces the primary step of first lowering the AOA, which allows all control surfaces to become more effective and allows for roll to be better controlled.
- Thrust should only be used as needed in the recovery.
Power-Off Stalls
- Power-off stalls simulate a stall during the normal approach to landing when an aircraft is low, slow, and descending. []
- Should be set up in the landing configuration
- Recoveries therefore train a pilot to make prompt, positive, and effective recoveries with a minimum loss of altitude
- This stall may occur while descending in an actual or simulated emergency or in any power-off situation when airspeed is not controlled
- The aircraft will be configured for an approach and landing and therefore stall at VSO, the "stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in a landing configuration"
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Power-Off Stall & Recovery Procedure:
- Sport Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.
- Private Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for ASEL or ASES, or 3,000 feet AGL for AMEL or AMES.
- Commercial Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for ASEL or ASES, or 3,000 feet AGL for AMEL or AMES.
- Perform clearing turns.
- Reduce power. adjusting pitch to maintain altitude.
- Trim as necessary.
- Below VLO, extend the landing gear, as required.
- Callout (over the ICS): "Gear Down."
- Verify gear down and callout (over the ICS) "3 Green, No Red."
- Below VFE, extend the flaps..
- Advance the propeller control to full forward (high rpm) as required..
- Maintain altitude until reaching a normal approach speed. and then maintain that speed in a stabilized descent.
- Descending no lower than 200', simultaneously reduce power to idle and pitch up to Vy attitude (4-5 degrees, cowling on the horizon).
- This pitch attitude will be a normal landing attitude
- Sport Pilot and Private Pilot standards: Maintain a specified heading within ±10° in straight flight, or a specified angle of bank not exceeding 20° within ±10° in turning flight, while inducing the stall.
- Commercial Pilot standards: Maintain a specified heading within ±10° in straight flight, or a specified angle of bank not exceeding 20° within ±5° in turning flight, while inducing the stall.
- Above 5 knots, above stall speed the horn may sound
- At the stall, call out "stalling."
- Reduce the AOA to regain control.
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- With the stall broken, smoothly add power and roll wings level
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor.
- Pitch for Vy.
- Glare shield level with the horizon.
- Maintain coordination using rudder to prevent spins.
- With a positive rate of climb established:
- Begin to raise the flaps in 10° increments.
- Below VLO, and with a positive rate of climb established, call out "positive climb, gear up," and retract the landing gear.
- Note, some aircraft Pilot Operating Handbooks may require flaps be partially retracted before a positive rate of climb is possible.
- Complete cruise checklist, returning to the altitude, heading, and airspeed required.
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Power-Off Stall & Recovery Common Errors:
- Failure to adequately clear the area.
- Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry.
- Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead stalls.
- Use outside and instrument references.
- Right rudder in nose-high power-on condition; release at break.
- Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls.
- Rough or uncoordinated control technique.
- Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall.
- Failure to achieve a stall.
- Improper torque correction.
- Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery.
- Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery.
- Secondary stall during recovery.
Power-On Stalls
- Helps recognize the indications of an imminent or full stall during power-on situations with the landing gear down and to make prompt, positive, and effective recoveries with a minimum loss of altitude. []
- Power-on stalls simulate a stall from normal takeoff and departure
- The aircraft will be clean, configured for climb, and therefore stall at VS1, the "stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration (same as Vs)"
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Power-On Stall & Recovery Procedure:
- Sport Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.
- Private Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for ASEL or ASES, or 3,000 feet AGL for AMEL or AMES.
- Commercial Pilot: Select an entry altitude that permits the maneuver to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for ASEL or ASES, or 3,000 feet AGL for AMEL or AMES.
- Perform clearing turns.
- Reduce power. adjusting pitch to maintain altitude
- Trim as necessary
- Below VLO, extend the landing gear, as required
- Callout (over the ICS): "Gear Down."
- Verify gear down and callout (over the ICS) "3 Green, No Red."
- At VR, set at least 65 percent available power and smoothly increase pitch to the attitude that induces a stall in straight flight or in a turn with a bank not exceeding 20°.
- Bring the rudder pedals to the horizon.
- Sport Pilot, Private Pilot, and Commercial Pilot standards: Maintain a specified heading within ±10° in straight flight, or the specified angle of bank within ±10° in turning flight, while inducing the stall.
- At the stall, call out, "stalling," and reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness.
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- With the stall broken, smoothly add full power to regain airspeed and roll the wings level
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor
- Pitch up to a Vx attitude
- Bring the horizon through the top 4th of the panel
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin
- Adjust pitch to Vy attitude. and minimize altitude loss
- Trim as necessary
- With a positive rate of climb established:
- Below VLO, and with a positive rate of climb established, call out "positive climb, gear up," and retract the landing gear
- Complete cruise checklist
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Power-On Stall & Recovery Common Errors:
- Failure to adequately clear the area
- Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
- Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead stalls
- Use outside and instrument references
- Right rudder in nose-high power-on condition; release at break
- Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
- Rough or uncoordinated control technique
- Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
- Failure to achieve a stall
- Improper torque correction
- Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
- Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
- Secondary stall during recovery
Cross-Controlled Stalls
- Cross-control stalls emphasize the importance of using coordinated control pressures whenever making turns
- Most apt to occur during a poorly planned and executed base-to-final approach turn (slip-stall)
- In this case the aircraft rolls in the direction of the rudder (likely to outside of the turn)
- Practicing approaches to stalls demonstrates the transition from cruise flight to critically slow airspeeds in various conditions
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Cross-Controlled Stall & Recovery Procedure:
- Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL.
- Commence a clearing turn.
- Reduce power. adjusting pitch to maintain altitude.
- Trim as necessary.
- Below VLO, extend the landing gear, as required.
- Callout (over the ICS): "Gear Down."
- Verify gear DOWN and callout (over the ICS) "3 Green, No Red.
- Advance the propeller control to full forward (high rpm) as required..
- Maintain altitude until reaching a typical approach speed,. and then establish a stabilized descent (trimmed) to simulate a normal approach to landing. .
- Descending no lower than 200' from the entry altitude, simultaneously reduce power to idle and pick a reference point off the left or right wing tip.
- Turn towards the reference point using a 25-30° bank while:
- Simultaneously applying excessive rudder pressure in the direction of turn (thereby accelerating the speed of outer wing).
- Using opposite aileron to prevent over-banking (maintain a constant 25-30° bank) during the turn, and.
- Increasing elevator back-pressure to keep the nose from lowering..
- At the imminent stall, callout, "stalling," reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness, and apply full power.
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor.
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin.
- Adjust pitch to the Vy attitude. and minimize altitude loss.
- Re-trim as necessary.
- Below VLO, and with a positive rate of climb established, call out "positive climb, gear up," and retract the landing gear.
- Complete cruise checklist, returning to the altitude, heading, and airspeed required
- Note that completion of the maneuver should occur by the 90° reference point and before full deflection of the rudder and aileron.
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Cross-Controlled Stall Common Errors:
- Failure to adequately clear the area.
- Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry (usually flaps up to avoid exceeding VFE.
- Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead stalls.
- Use outside and instrument references.
- Right rudder in nose-high power-on condition; release at break.
- Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls.
- Rough or uncoordinated control technique.
- Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall.
- Failure to achieve a stall.
- Improper torque correction.
- Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery.
- Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery.
- Secondary stall during recovery.
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Cross Controlled Stall Airman Certification Standards:
Accelerated Stalls
- A stall above 1-g flight is termed an accelerated stall
- For this reason, you may hear of an accelerated stall referred to as a "G-Stall"
- Accelerated stalls demonstrate stalls are a function of angle of attack and not airspeed. []
- Realize prior to the stall, the aircraft was flying, so recovery is not complicated - unload the wings
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Accelerated Stall & Recovery Procedure:
- Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
- Commence a clearing turn.
- Reduce power. to allow the airplane to decelerate to cruise airspeed.
- Ensure the flaps are up
- Once established at a cruise airspeed,. establish a 45-50° bank to the left or right
- Reduce power to idle, adjusting the pitch to maintain altitude
- Allow the airspeed to decrease approximately 20 KIAS and then. firmly increase elevator back-pressure
- Establish a speed reduction of about 3-5 knots per second.
- At the imminent stall (buffet):
- Note the indicated airspeed,
- Callout (over the ICS), "stalling,"
- Reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- Add power as necessary
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to:
- Level the wings,
- Prevent entering into a spin, and
- Minimize altitude loss by establishing Vy.
- Re-trim as necessary
- Return to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified
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Accelerated Stall and Recovery Common Errors:
- Failure to adequately clear the area
- Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
- Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead stalls
- Use outside and instrument references
- Right rudder in nose-high power-on condition; release at break
- Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
- Rough or uncoordinated control technique
- Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
- Failure to achieve a stall
- Improper torque correction
- Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
- Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
- Secondary stall during recovery
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Accelerated Stall Airman Certification Standards:
Elevator Trim Stalls
- Elevator trim stalls show what can happen when full power is applied for a go-around and positive control of the airplane is not maintained. []
- Shows the importance of smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, and maintaining positive control.
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Elevator Trim Stall & Recovery Procedure:
- Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
- Commence a clearing turn.
- Reduce power,. adjusting pitch (trimming) to maintain altitude
- Below VLO, extend the landing gear and verify 3 down and locked
- Below VFE, extend the flaps for takeoff or landing configurations
- Adjust pitch (trim) to maintain altitude
- Advance the propeller control to full forward (high rpm) as required.
- Maintain altitude until reaching approach speed,. and then establish a stabilized descent (trimmed) to simulate a normal approach to landing (3° down)
- Descending no lower than 200' from the entry altitude, apply full throttle, allowing the airplane to roll left and the pitch to increase to the Vx pitch attitude.
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor
- Reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings
- Adjust pitch to the Vy attitude,. raise the flaps in increments,. to 10 °:
- Too abrupt of flap retraction will result in a dramatic loss of lift and possibly stall
- As airspeed increases, but below VLO raise the landing gear
- At or above Vy retract flaps to 0°
- As cruise airspeed is attained, set cruise power.
- Re-trim as necessary
- Complete the Cruise Flow/Checklist
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Elevator Trim Stall Common Errors:
- Failure to adequately clear the area
- Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
- Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead stalls
- Use outside and instrument references
- Right rudder in nose-high power-on condition; release at break
- Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
- Rough or uncoordinated control technique
- Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
- Failure to achieve a stall
- Improper torque correction
- Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
- Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
- Secondary stall during recovery
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Elevator Trim Stall Airman Certification Standards:
Secondary Stalls
- Secondary stall are stalls that may occur after a recovery from a preceding stall. []
- Secondary stalls are caused by attempting to hasten the completion of a stall recovery before the airplane has regained sufficient flying speed
- It also occurs when the pilot fails to reduce the angle of attack sufficiently during stall recovery by not lowering pitch attitude sufficiently, or by attempting to break the stall by using power only
- When this stall occurs, the back-elevator pressure should again be released just as in a normal stall recovery
- When sufficient airspeed has been regained, the airplane can then be returned to straight-and-level flight
- Performing the secondary stall procedure demonstrate the effects of improper control usage inducing another stall after initiating a recovery from the initial stall
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Secondary Stalls & Recovery Procedure:
- Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
- Perform clearing turns.
- Perform a power-off stall or power-on stall as directed
- At the stall, call out, "stalling," and reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- Add full power to regain airspeed
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin
- Immediately increase the pitch attitude to induce another (secondary) stall
- At the stall, callout (over the ICS), "stalling," reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
- Note reducing AOA does not require an aggressive push forward on the controls.
- Add full power to regain airspeed
- Right rudder will be necessary to counteract the increase in p-factor
- Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin
- Adjust pitch to the Vx attitude,. re-trimming as necessary and minimizing altitude loss
- With a positive rate of climb established:
- Complete cruise checklist, returning to the altitude, heading, and airspeed required
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Secondary Stalls Airman Certification Standards:
Tail Stalls
- Tail stalls are when the tail of an aircraft stalls, usually due to an atmospheric phenomena such as icing
- Tail stalls are most common on the approach and landing phase of flight, less so enroute
- Tail stalls are not easy to differentiate from a wing stall and their recovery procedures are opposite that of a wing stall
- To learn more, check out Bold Method's Most Pilots Don't Know How To Recover From This Type Of Stall article
Stall Prevention and Recovery Decisions
Before stall practice, confirm aircraft limitations and setup, clear recovery space, adequate height, recovery cues, control responsibilities, and stop criteria. Clear below as well as around the airplane: entry and recovery can involve descent and changes in direction. Plan height above the terrain under both the maneuver and recovery area, with an adequate additional margin. Reviewing altitude lost during recognition and recovery illustrates why a low-altitude stall may leave insufficient room.
Trying to stretch a power-off glide by slowing below the appropriate glide speed can trade away airspeed and raise AOA to critical without supplying the energy needed to reach the landing area. On a powered approach, restore an appropriate AOA and energy state using the aircraft procedure; go around if a safe stabilized approach cannot be maintained.
Bank angle alone is not a reliable measure of stall risk in a base-to-final turn. AOA, load factor, and coordination matter. Excessive rudder combined with back pressure can produce an uncoordinated stall at a modest bank angle. A properly flown forward slip within aircraft limitations is a controlled maneuver, but exceeding critical AOA while uncoordinated can lead to a spin. Increased positive load factor can cause an accelerated stall above the published 1-G stall speed.
During recovery, disconnect an engaged autopilot or wing leveler when applicable to restore direct manual control and prevent inappropriate control or trim inputs. Promptly reduce AOA with enough nose-down input to eliminate stall indications, avoiding an unnecessarily abrupt or excessive push. The Max - Relax - Level mnemonic is a memory aid, not permission to delay AOA reduction while adding power; the aircraft recovery procedure governs.
Large aileron inputs before reducing AOA can worsen a dropped-wing stall: the downward-deflected aileron increases local AOA and drag. Some aileron effectiveness may remain when only part of the wing is stalled; this is not a claim that ailerons are categorically ineffective. Reduce AOA first and use the aircraft recovery procedure. Anticipate pitch and yaw changes when adding power and maintain coordination.
After a landing-configuration stall, flap and landing-gear changes must follow the aircraft recovery or go-around procedure, including its airspeed and climb requirements. Do not clean up indiscriminately. Recovery is complete when the airplane is unstalled and has regained a safe desired flightpath with adequate airspeed, control effectiveness, and coordination.
A secondary stall occurs when AOA exceeds critical again after the original stall has been broken, often because the pilot pulls too soon or too abruptly. Failure to unstall the wing initially is continuation of the original stall. A returning warning alone does not prove another full stall, but requires prompt AOA reduction to restore margin, appropriate power, and coordinated control.
Power-on stall training addresses excessive AOA during takeoff, climb, go-around, or attempted obstacle clearance. Pulling harder when available maximum power cannot provide the needed climb can reduce airspeed and produce a stall without increasing climb capability. Establish the recommended training entry speed to avoid an unnecessarily steep, prolonged nose-high entry. Maintain coordination with the rudder input actually needed as power, airspeed, and AOA change.
During a go-around, power application with nose-up landing trim can create a strong nose-up tendency. Maintain positive elevator control to establish safe attitude and AOA, then adjust trim to relieve force while following the aircraft procedure. If a power-on stall occurs with appropriate maximum power already set, confirm that setting while promptly reducing AOA and restoring coordinated control.
Reference: FAA Airplane Flying Handbook, Chapter 5: Maintaining Aircraft Control.
Stall Recovery Fundamentals
- Follow the aircraft-specific Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)/Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) stall-recovery procedure. "Max - Relax - Level" can help recall the power, angle-of-attack, and bank-control elements, but it is not a universal action order. The first action required to stop the stall is to reduce angle of attack below critical.
- Reduce angle of attack enough to restore attached airflow.
- Base the recovery control input on reducing angle of attack, not on positioning the nose relative to the horizon; a stalled wing may require forward pressure even when the nose is already below the horizon.
- Apply maximum allowable power as appropriate while managing pitch and yaw.
- Level the wings with coordinated controls as appropriate, then retract drag-producing devices incrementally and return to the desired flightpath without causing a secondary stall.
- Reduce angle of attack enough to restore attached airflow.
- See power-off stalls, power-on stalls, elevator trim stalls, cross-controlled stalls, accelerated stalls, and secondary stalls.
Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures Lessons & Case Studies
- National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Identification: CHI08FA039:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot not maintaining adequate airspeed for the gusty crosswind conditions and the stall/spin encountered during the go-around. Contributing to the accident were the crosswinds and wind gusts.
- National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Identification: WPR22FA033:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot's improper landing approach, which failed to account for wind conditions, and his exceedance of the airplane's critical angle of attack following an overshoot of the runway extended centerline, resulting in an accelerated aerodynamic stall. Contributing to the accident was the pilot's lack of experience flying into challenging backcountry airstrips
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: WPR24FA104:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot's exceedance of the airplane's critical angle of attack during a turn, which resulted in an aerodynamic stall. Contributing to the accident was the pilot's use of potentially impairing substances with bipolar disorder, which resulted in a decreased reaction time during a stall recovery at a low altitude.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: ERA15LA156:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The student pilot’s failure to maintain adequate airspeed while maneuvering, which resulted in the airplane exceeding its critical angle-of-attack and experiencing an aerodynamic stall. Contributing to the accident was the student pilot's decision to operate the airplane at a low altitude that did not allow for stall recovery.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: CEN15CA165:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot-receiving-instruction's excessive pitch control during takeoff, which resulted in an aerodynamic stall shortly after liftoff and the subsequent loss of control. Contributing to the accident was the flight crew's decision to have the flight instructor separately control the throttle while the pilot-receiving-instruction manipulated the flight controls, which resulted in inadequate coordination between the flight crew during the attempted stall recovery.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: CEN13LA034:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot’s inadequate airspeed management while maneuvering in gusty wind conditions, which resulted in an aerodynamic stall. Contributing to the accident was the airplane’s low altitude, which did not allow for a stall recovery.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: CEN26LA274:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot’s failure to maintain control during a turn, which resulted in an aerodynamic stall.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: CEN26LA244:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot’s exceedance of the airplane’s critical angle of attack during the initial climb, which led to an aerodynamic stall and a loss of airplane control at too low of an altitude to recover. Contributing to the accident was the pilot’s lack of recent experience in the airplane.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: ERA26LA236:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot’s failure to maintain control of the airplane during an aborted landing attempt which resulted in an aerodynamic stall.
- National Transportation Safety Board Identification: CEN26LA209:
- The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The student pilot's failure to maintain adequate airspeed, which led to the airplane exceeding its critical angle of attack and experiencing an aerodynamic stall. Contributing to the accident was the pilot’s decision to practice slow flight maneuvers at an altitude that precluded a recovery from the inadvertent stall after the turbulence encounter.
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Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures Conclusion
- Remain mindful that performance calculations are usually more optimistic than actual performance.
- Stalls do NOT occur without warning.
- While flying along in cruise flight, a stall will not rip the airplane out of the sky and throw it uncontrollably to the ground to a big smoking crater.
- Approximately 3.8% of stalls happen on downwind, 6.1% of stalls happen on final, and approximately half of all stalls occur on final.
- While training for stalls is performed in a controlled environment, it is important to remember the scenarios where the various types of stalls could occur to develop practical application understanding.
- At high load factors, the sudden loss of lift from one wing (whichever stalls first) creates a much large rolling moment than with a 1-g stall.
- The result is a violent departure that resembles a snap roll.
- Base-to-final stalls are most likely to occur when the pilot tries to pull an aircraft tighter, and a cross-controlled event occurs, causing a stall, likely rolling the aircraft into the direction of turn.
- It is important to note that individual aircraft may have stall characteristics unique to them due to bends/twists which develop in the airframe over time depending on their use.
- To get more in depth about what is occurring during a stall, be sure to read the stall performance page.
- Stalls are most likely to occur unexpectedly.
- When teaching/practicing stalls, don't practice basic mechanics in unrealistic scenarios.
- Since a stall is most likely to be fatal when in the traffic pattern, consider flying a simulated pattern at altitude and assess reaction/altitude impacts.
- Stalling airspeed differentials VSO and VS1 is a factor of configuration.
- While power-off and power-on stalls are practiced in defined configurations relative to certain phases of flight, reality is that these configurations will not match every profile flown, and stall speed (VSO and VS1) is not a factor of power-off/power-on, but of configuration.
- Larger aircraft may actually have VS2 or VS3, etc. based on different configurations.
- Although power-off stalls can happen in various regimes of flight, recovery procedures are particularly important while on an approach to landing.
- Although power-on stalls can happen in various regimes of flight, recovery procedures are particularly important while on an takeoff and climb.
- When teaching stalls, avoid mechanical steps, but instead introduce a stall when unexpected, as that is the most likely scenario to encounter.
- Note that flaps are not extended due to the possibility of exceeding VFE.
- Realize the potential effect an autopilot has on masking a slowly increasing angle of attack closing the margin to a stall.
- Consider hand flying during critical phases of flight.
- In high-performance aircraft, power-on stalls can be avoided (altitude dependent) by quickly rolling 90 degrees and letting the nose drop through the horizon.
- When there is a need to roll wings-level as part of a recovery, recognize roll rate differs by aircraft, and that impacts how fast that plane can recover.
- Pilot Workshops says it well: "Some pilots believe that applying rudder during a stall will automatically cause a spin. That’s not always the case. A cross-controlled stall shouldn’t be confused with stalling during a skid. When skidding, yaw and bank are in the same direction. This is the scenario that can kill when it turns into a low-altitude spin. In a cross-controlled stall, the yaw and the bank oppose each other, effectively canceling out the forces that typically lead to a spin. As a result, the airplane remains stable and won’t enter a spin."
- Flight profiles for stall practice is useful, but staged, and should never overshadow that control surfaces can stall at any airspeed, as it is the critical angle of attack that defines a stall.
- Expect additional pressure against flight controls when traveling at higher airspeeds, less pressure at lower airspeeds.
- Remain mindful that performance calculations are usually more optimistic than actual performance.
- Consider practicing maneuvers on a flight simulator to introduce yourself to maneuvers or knock off rust.
- Still looking for something? Continue searching:
Airplane Stall & Recovery Procedures References
- Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) - Pilot/Controller Glossary.
- Airplane Flying Handbook (Chapter 4) Stalls.
- Federal Aviation Administration - FAASTeam: Stall, Spin, and Upset Recovery Training.
- CFI Notebook.net - Stall Procedures Lesson Plan.
- CFI Notebook.net - Stall Performance.
- FAA - Airman Certification Standards.
- Pilot Magazine - Stalls Aren't a Maneuver, They're an Emergency.
- Aviation Safety Magazine - Flaps or Gear First?.