Steep Turns

Steep Turns develops the ability to recognize changes in aircraft flight characteristics and control effectiveness at steep turn angles.


Steep Turns

Introduction to Steep Turns

  • Steep turns develop a pilot's skill in flight control, smoothness, and coordination at high angles of bank; awareness of the airplane's orientation relative to external references; division of attention between flight-control applications; and the constant need to scan for hazards and other traffic in the area.
  • Maximum performance turns are using the fastest rate of turn and the shortest radius.
  • These turns will cause a much higher stalling speed.
    • Limiting the load factor determines the maximum bank angle without stalling.
  • Review your knowledge against the Private Pilot (Airplane) or Commercial Pilot (Airplane) Airman Certification Standards, and close out with a topic summary.

  • WARNING:
    All procedures are GENERALIZED.
    Fly the maneuver in accordance with the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH).
    and/or current Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).

Steep Turns

Steep Turns Overview

  • Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360° and 720° turns, in either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45° and 60°
  • Steep turns are primarily a training maneuver.
  • Steep turns help pilots understand:
    • Higher G-forces during a turn.
    • An airplane's inherent tendency to overbank when the bank angle exceeds 30°
    • The significant loss of the vertical component of lift at steep bank angles.
    • Substantial pitch control pressures.
    • The need for additional power to maintain airspeed during the turn.
  • Still, pilots could find themselves in situations requiring high-performance turns, such as unexpected obstacle avoidance or emergencies (e.g., steep spirals).

Steep Turns

Steep Turns Performance Review

  • To fully appreciate steep turns, a full review of turn performance is required.

  • Turn Performance Review:

    • When an airplane banks for a level turn, the lift vector tilts, creating both vertical and horizontal components.
    • To maintain altitude at a constant airspeed, the pilot increases the angle of attack (AOA) to ensure the vertical component of lift remains sufficient.
    • The pilot adds power as needed to maintain airspeed.
    • For a steep turn, as in any level turn, the horizontal component of lift provides the necessary force to turn the airplane.
    • For any aircraft at any airspeed, a given bank angle in a level turn always produces the same load factor.

  • Rate and Radius of Turns Review:

    • Rate of Turn:

      • The rate depends on a set bank angle at a set speed. [Figure 2]
      • The standard rate of turn is 3° per second.
      • Speed & Rate of Turn:
        • If the aircraft increases speed without changing the bank angle, the rate of turn decreases.
        • If the aircraft decreases speed without changing the bank angle, the rate of turn increases.
      • Bank Angle & Rate of Turn:
        • If the aircraft bank angle increases without changing airspeed, the rate of turn increases.
        • If the aircraft bank angle decreases without changing airspeed, the rate of turn decreases.
      • Speed and bank angle, therefore, vary inversely to maintain a standard rate of turn.
        • This relationship becomes significant in the instrument environment, such as during holding or an instrument approach.
      • A rule of thumb for determining the standard rate turn is to divide the airspeed by ten and add 5.
        • Example: an aircraft with an airspeed of 90 knots takes a bank angle of 16° to maintain a standard rate turn (90 knots ÷ 10 + 5 = 14°).

    • Radius of Turn:

      • The radius of turn varies with changes in either speed or bank. [Figure 2]
      • Speed & Radius of Turn:
        • If the speed increases without changing the bank angle, the radius of turn increases.
        • If the speed decreases without changing the bank angle, the radius of turn decreases.
      • Bank Angle & Radius of Turn:
        • If the speed is constant, increasing the bank angle decreases the radius of turn.
        • If the speed is constant, decreasing the bank angle increases the radius of turn.
      • Therefore, intercepting a course at a higher speed requires more distance and, therefore, requires a longer lead.
      • If the speed is slowed considerably in preparation for holding or an approach, a shorter lead is needed than that required for cruise flight.
      • Instrument Flying Handbook. Figure 2-14, Rate and Radius of Turns
        Instrument Flying Handbook, Turns
      • Instrument Flying Handbook. Figure 2-14, Rate and Radius of Turns
        Instrument Flying Handbook, Turns

  • Load Factor Review:

    • The load factor is the vector addition of the gravitational and centrifugal forces an aircraft experiences.
      • When the bank angle is steep, as in a level altitude 45° banked turn, the resulting load factor is 1.41.
      • In a level altitude 60° banked turn, the resulting load factor is 2.0.
      • To put this in perspective, with a load factor of 2.0, the aircraft's effective weight (including its occupants) doubles.
    • Pilots may have difficulty with orientation and movement when first experiencing these forces.
    • Pilots should also understand that load factors increase dramatically during a level turn beyond 60° of bank.
      • Note that the design of a standard category general aviation airplane accommodates a load factor up to 3.8. A level turn using 75° of bank exceeds that limit.
    • Because of higher load factors, pilots perform steep turns at airspeeds that do not exceed the airplane's design maneuvering speed (VA) or operating maneuvering speed (VO).
    • Maximum turning performance for a given speed is when an aircraft has a high angle of bank.
    • Structural and aerodynamic design, along with available power, limit each airplane's level-turning performance.
      • The airplane's limiting load factor sets the maximum bank angle it can maintain in level flight without exceeding structural limits or stalling.
    • As the load factor increases, so does the stalling speed.
      • For example, if an aircraft stalls in level flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a 45° steep turn while maintaining altitude.
      • The aircraft will stall at 70 knots if the bank increases to 60°.
      • Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load factor.
    • As the bank angle increases in level flight, the margin between stalling speed and maneuvering speed decreases.
      • At speeds at or below VA or VO, the airplane will stall before exceeding the design load limit.

  • Overbanking Review:

    • In addition to the increased load factors, the aircraft will exhibit an "overbanking tendency."
    • In most flight maneuvers, bank angles are shallow enough that the aircraft exhibits positive or neutral longitudinal stability.
      • However, as the bank angle increases, the airplane will continue to roll in the direction of the bank unless the pilot deliberately applies opposite aileron pressure.
    • Pilots should also be mindful of the various left-turning tendencies, such as P-factor, which require effective rudder/aileron coordination.
    • During a steep turn, the airplane experiences a significant yaw component that creates motion toward and away from the Earth’s surface, which can seem confusing at first.
    • Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot ensures that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards.
      • Additionally, the pilot should choose distant references to help determine when to begin rolling out of the turn.

  • Coordination Throughout Turns:

    • A slipping turn occurs when the aircraft does not turn at the rate appropriate to the bank, and it falls to the inside of the turn. [Figure 3]
    • The aircraft is banked too much for the rate of turn, so the horizontal lift component exceeds the centrifugal force.
    • A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal force over the horizontal lift component, pulling the aircraft toward the outside of the turn. [Figure 3]
    • The rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, so the horizontal lift component is less than the centrifugal force.
    • The ball instrument indicates the quality of the turn and should be centered when banking.
    • If the ball is off-center toward the turn, the aircraft is slipping, requiring increased rudder pressure on that side to increase the rate of turn.
      • Also, reducing the bank angle without changing the rudder pressure will help coordinate the turn.
    • If the ball is off-center on the side away from the turn, the aircraft is skidding, requiring rudder pressure on that side to be relaxed to decrease the rate of turn.
      • Also, increasing the bank angle without changing the rudder pressure will help coordinate the turn.
    • The ball should be centered when the wings are level; use rudder and/or aileron trim if available.
    • The increase in induced drag (due to the angle of attack increase required to maintain altitude) results in a minor loss of airspeed if the power setting is not adjusted.
    • Note that in a slip, the outside wing experiences slower movement through the air, resulting in a higher angle of attack to maintain lift.
      • In the event of a stall, the aircraft will then roll to the outside wing (due to a higher angle of attack).
      • The reverse is true for a slip, where the inside wing drops first due to the relatively slower movement through the air.

Steep Turns

Steep Turns Procedure

  1. Perform clearing turns.
  2. Select a prominent visual reference point ahead of the airplane and out toward the horizon.
  3. Adjust the pitch and power to maintain altitude.
    • Trim as necessary.
  4. Maintain heading and note the pitch attitude required for level flight.
  5. After establishing the manufacturer's recommended entry speed, VA, or VO, as applicable, smoothly roll into a predetermined bank angle between 45° and 60°
    • While establishing the bank angle, generally before 30° of bank, smoothly apply elevator back pressure to increase the AOA.
      • Considerable force is required on the elevator control to maintain level flight.
      • The decision to use trim depends on the airplane's characteristics, the speed of the trim system, and the preferences of the instructor and learner.
    • Simultaneously, power should be applied.
      • As the AOA increases, so does drag, and additional power allows the airplane to maintain airspeed.
    • Remain coordinated.
    • Remember parallax error.
  6. Rolling through 30° of bank, increase power to maintain airspeed.
    • Increase pitch to maintain altitude.
    • Trim as necessary.
    • Pulling back on the yoke will increase the rate of turn, but do not allow the aircraft to climb.
  7. Refer to the visual reference point and roll out 20-25° before the entry heading.
  8. Through 30° of bank, decrease RPM.
    • Decrease pitch.
    • Trim nose down.
  9. Return to wings level on entry heading, altitude, and airspeed.
    • A good rule of thumb is to begin the rollout at 1/2 the bank angle before reaching the terminating heading.
      • For example, if a steep turn begins on a heading of 270° and the bank angle is 60°, the pilot should begin the rollout 30° before the entry heading.
    • While the rollout is underway, gradually reduce the elevator back pressure, trim (if used), and power as necessary to maintain altitude and airspeed.
  10. Immediately roll into a bank in the opposite direction.
    • Perform the maneuver once more in the opposite direction.
  11. Upon rolling out after the second turn, resume normal cruise.
    • Trim as necessary.
  12. Complete the cruise checklist.

Steep Turns

Steep Turns Common Errors

  • Failure to adequately clear the area.
  • Inadequate back-elevator pressure control as power reduces, resulting in altitude loss.
  • Excessive back-elevator pressure as power reduces, resulting in altitude gain, followed by a rapid reduction in airspeed and "mushing."
    • Remember, the aircraft stalls at a higher airspeed when in high angles of bank.
  • Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during turns.
  • Inadequate power management.
  • Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation.
  • Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout.
  • Failure to maintain a constant bank angle.
  • Poor flight control coordination.
  • Ineffective use of trim.
  • Ineffective use of power.
  • Inadequate airspeed control.
  • Becoming disoriented.
  • Performing by reference to the flight instruments rather than visual references.
  • Failure to scan for other traffic during the maneuver.
  • Attempting to start recovery prematurely.
  • Failure to stop the turn on the designated heading.

Steep Turns

Steep Turns Case Studies


Steep Turns

Steep Turns Conclusion


Steep Turns

Steep Turns References