Basic Flight Maneuvers
Learn basic flight maneuvers for helicopter operations, including the procedures, techniques, hazards, and decision-making guidance presented in the FAA Helicopter Flying Handbook.
Introduction
- From the previous chapters, it should be apparent that two helicopters perform the same way.
- Even when the same model of helicopter, wind, temperature, weight, and equipment make it difficult to predict just the helicopter will perform.
- Therefore, this chapter the basic flight maneuvers in a way that would apply the majority of helicopters.
- In most cases, the techniques described apply to small training helicopters with:
- • A single, main rotor rotating in a counterclockw direction (looking downward on the rotor).
- • An antitorque system. no flying humidity, how presents to ise Where a technique differs, it is noted.
- For example, a power increase on a helicopter with a clockwise rotor system requires right antitorque pedal pressure instead of left pedal pressure.
- In many cases, the terminology "apply proper pedal pressure" is used to indicate both types of rotor systems.
- However, when discussing throt tle coordination to maintain proper rotations per minute (rpm), there is no differentiation between those helicopters with a gove rnor and those without.
- In a sense, the governor is doing the work for you.
- In addition, instead of using the terms "collective pitch control" and "cyclic pitch control" throughout the chapter, these controls are referred to as just "collective" and "cyclic." Because helicopter performance varies with weather conditions and aircraft loading, specific nose attitudes and power settings are not detailed in this handbook.
- In addition, this chapter does not detail every attitude of a helicopter in the various flight maneuvers, nor every move that must be made in order to perform a given maneuver.
- When a maneuver is presented, there is a brief description, followed by the technique to accomplish the maneuver.
- In most cases, there is a list of common errors at the end of the discussion.
The Four Fundamentals
- There are four fundamentals of flight upon which all maneuvers are based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents.
- All controlled flight maneuvers consist of one or more of these four fundamentals of flight.
- If a student pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the student's proficiency is based on accurate "feel" and control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the ability to perform any assigned maneuver is only a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it.
- The flight instructor must impart a good knowledge of these basic elements to the student and must combine them and plan their practice so that proper performance of each is instinctive without conscious effort.
- The importance of this to the success of flight training cannot be overemphasized.
- As the student progresses to more complex maneuvers, discounting any difficulties in visualizing the maneuvers, most student difficulties are caused by a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the principles of one or more of these fundamentals.
Guidelines
- Good practices to follow during maneuvering flight include:
- 1.
- Move the cyclic only as fast as trim, torque, and rotor speed can be maintained.
- When entering a maneuver and the trim, rotor, or torque reacts quicker than anticipated, pilot limitations have been exceeded.
- If continued, an aircraft limitation will be exceeded.
- Perform the maneuver with less intensity until all aspects of the machine can be controlled.
- The pilot must be aware of the sensitivity of the flight controls due to the high speed of the main rotor.
- 2.
- Anticipate changes in aircraft performance due to loading or environmental condition.
- The normal collective increase to check rotor speed at sea level standard (SLS) may not be sufficient at 4,000 feet pressure altitude (PA) and 95 °F.
- 3.
- The following flight characteristics may be expected during maneuvering flight and will be discussed and demonstrated by your Flight Instructor:
- • Left turns, torque increases (more antitorque).
- This applies to most helicopters, but not all.
- • Right turns, torque decreases (less antitorque).
- This applies to most helicopters, but not all.
- • Application of aft cyclic, torque decreases and rotor speed increases.
- • Application of forward cyclic (especially when immediately following aft cyclic application), torque increases and rotor speed decreases.
- • Always leave a way out.
- • Know where the winds are.
- • Engine failures can occur during power changes and cruise flight.
- One possible cause of engine failure during cruise flight can be attributed to the pilot ignoring carburetor air temperatures, which could lead to carburetor icing and, subsequently, engine failure.
- • Crew coordination is critical.
- Everyone needs to be fully aware of what is going on, and each crewmember has a specific duty.
- • In steep turns, the nose drops.
- In most cases, energy (airspeed) must be traded to maintain altitude as the required excess engine power may not be available (to maintain airspeed in a 2G/60° turn, rotor thrust/engine power must increase by 100 percent).
- Failure to anticipate this at low altitude endangers the crew and passengers.
- The rate of pitch change is proportional to gross weight and density altitude.
- • Normal helicopter landings usually require high power settings, with terminations to a hover requiring the highest power setting.
- • The cyclic position relative to the horizon determines the helicopter's travel and attitude.
Straight-and-Level Flight
- Straight-and-level flight is flight in which constant and heading are maintained.
- The attitude of the rotor relative to the horizon determines the airspeed.
- The horizontal stabilizer design determines the helicopter's attitude stabilized at an airspeed and altitude.
- Altitude is controlled by use of the collective.
Technique
- To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path plane be tilted forward to obtain the necessary horizontal component from the main rotor.
- By doing this, it causes nose of the helicopter to lower which in turn will cause airspeed to increase.
- In order to counteract this, the must find the correct power setting to maintain level flight adjusting the collective.
- [] The horizontal aids in trimming the helicopter about its transverse, horizontal axis, and reduces the amount of nose tuck that would On several helicopters, it is designed as a negative lift which produces a lifting force in a downward direction.
- When in straight-and-level flight, any increase in collective, while holding airspeed constant, causes helicopter to climb.
- A decrease in the collective, while airspeed constant, causes the helicopter to descend.
- A in the collective requires a coordin ated change of the to maintain a constant rpm. Additionally, the antitorque need to keep the helicopter in trim around the vertical To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, forward pressure on the cyclic and raise the collective necessary to maintain altitude.
- To decrease airspeed, rearward pressure on the cyclic and lower the collective, necessary, to maintain altitude.
- Although the cyclic is sensitive, there is a slight delay in control reaction, and it is necessary to antici pate actual altitude movement of the helicopter.
- When making cyclic inputs to disk control the altitude or airspeed of a heli copter, take care not to overcontrol.
- If the nose of the helicopter rises above the when level-flight attitude, apply forward pressure to the cyclic to primarily bring the nose down.
- If this correction is held too long, the nose drops too low.
- Since the helicopter continues to change attitude momentarily after the controls reach neutral, return the cyclic to neutral slightly before the desired attitude is must reached.
- This principle holds true for any cyclic input. thrust the Since helicopters are not very stable, but are inherently very the controllable, if a gust or turbulence causes the nose to drop, pilot the nose tends to continue to drop instead of returning to a by straight-and-level attitude as it would on a fixed-wing aircraft. stabilizer Therefore, a pilot must remain alert and fly the helicopt er at all times. occur. airfoil,
Common Errors
- 1.
- Failure to trim the helicopter properly, tending to hold antitorque pedal pressure and opposite cyclic.
- This is the commonly called cross-controlling. the holding 2.
- Failure to maintain desired airspeed. change 3.
- Failure to hold proper control position to maint ain throttle desired ground track. pedals 4.
- Failure to allow helicopter to stabilize at new airspeed. axis. apply
Turns
- as A turn is a maneuver used to change the heading of the apply helicopter.
- The aerodynamics of a turn were previously as discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics of Flight.
Technique
- Before beginning any turn, the area in the direction of the turn must be cleared not only at the helicopter's altit ude, but also above and below.
- To enter a turn from straight-and-level flight, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in the direction the turn is to be made.
- This is the only control movement needed to start the turn.
- Do not use the pedals to assist the turn.
- Use the pedals only to compensate for torque to keep the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis.
- [] Keeping the fuselage in the correct streamlined position around the vertical axis facilitates the helicopter flying forward with the least drag.
- Trim is indicated by a yaw string in the center, or a centered ball on a turn and slip indicator.
- A yaw string (also referred to as a slip string) is a tool used to indicate slip or skid during flight.
- It is simply a string attached to the nose or canopy of an aircraft so that it is visible to the pilot during flight.
- The string measures sideslip and offers a visual cue to the pilot in order to make yaw corrections. or to A of In How fast the helicopter banks depends on how much lateral cyclic pressure is applied.
- How far the helicopt er banks (the steepness of the bank) depends on how long the cyclic is displaced.
- After establishing the proper bank angle, return the cyclic toward the neutral position.
- When the bank is established, returning the cyclic to neutral (or holding it inclined relative to the horizon) will maintain the helicopter at that bank angle.
- Increase the collective and throttle to maintain altitude and rpm. As the torque increases, increase the proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain longi tudinal trim.
- Depending on the degree of bank, addit ional forward cyclic pressure may be required to maintain airspeed.
- Rolling out of the turn to straight-and-level flight is the same as the entry into the turn, except that pressure on the cyclic is applied in the opposite direction.
- Since the helicopter continues to turn as long as there is any bank, start the rollout before reaching the desired heading.
- The discussion on level turns is equally applicable to making turns while climbing or descending.
- The only difference is that the helicopter is in a climbing or descending attitude rather than that of level flight.
- If a so-called simultaneous entry (entering a turn while, at the same time, climbing or descending) is desired, merely combine the techniques of both maneuvers - climb or descent entry and turn entry.
- When recovering from a climbing or descending turn, the desired heading and altitude are rarely reached at the same time.
- If the heading is reached first, stop the turn and maintain the climb or descent until reaching the desired altitude.
- On the other hand, if the altitude is reached first, establish the level flight attitude and continue the turn to the desired heading.
Slips
- A slip occurs when the helicopter slides sideways toward the center of the turn.
- [] It is caused by an insufficient amount of antitorque pedal in the direction of the turn, too much in the direction oppos ite the turn, in relation the amount of power used.
- In other words, if you hold improper antitorque pedal press ure, which keeps the nose from following the turn, the helicopter slips sideways toward the center of the turn.
Skids
- skid occurs when the helicopter slides sideways away from the center of the turn.
- [] It is caused by too much antitorque pedal pressure in the direction of the turn, or by too little in the direction opposite the turn in relation to the amount of power used.
- If the helicopter is forced to turn faster with increased pedal pressure instead of by increasing the degree of the bank, it skids sideways away from the center the turn instead of flying in its normal curved path. summary, a skid occurs when the rate of turn is too great for the amount of bank being used, and a slip occurs when the rate of turn is too low for the amount of bank being used.
- []
Normal Climb
- The entry into a climb from a hover has already been in the Normal Takeoff from a Hover subsection; theref this discussion is limited to a climb entry from cruising
Technique
- To enter a climb in a helicopter while maintaining the first actions are increasing the collective and and adjusting the pedals as necessary to maintain a ball in the slip/skid indicator.
- Moving the collective requires a slight aft movement of the cyclic to direct of the increased power into lift and maintain the Remember, a helicopter can climb with the nose down descend with the nose up.
- Helicopter attitude changes reflect acceleration or deceleration, not climb or Therefore, the climb attitude is approximately the same level flight in a stable climb, depending on the horizontal stabilizer design.
- If the pilot wishes to climb faster, with a decreased airspeed, then the climb can be initiated with aft cyclic.
- Depending on initial or entry airspeed for the climb, the climb can be accomplished without increasing the collective, if a much slower airspeed is acceptable.
- However, as the airspeed decreases, the airflow over the vertical fin decreases necessitating more antitorque (left) pedal application.
- To level off from a climb, start adjusting the attitude to the level flight attitude a few feet prior to reaching the desired altitude.
- The amount of lead depends on the rate of climb at the time of level-off (the higher the rate of climb, the more the lead).
- Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the climb rate.
- For example, if the climb rate is 500 feet per minute (fpm), you should lead the level-off by 50 feet.
- To begin the level-off, apply forward cyclic to adjust and maintain a level flight attitude, which can be slightly nose low.
- Maintain climb power until the airspeed approaches the desired cruising airspeed, then lower the collective to obtain cruising power and adjust the throttle to obtain and maintain cruising rpm. Throughout the level-off, maintain longitudinal trim with the antitorque pedals.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Failure to maintain proper power and airspeed.
- 2.
- Holding too much or too little antitorque pedal.
- 3.
- In the level-off, decreasing power before adjusting the nose to cruising attitude.
Normal Descent
- A normal descent is a maneuver in which the helicop ter loses altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled attitude. described
Technique
- ore, To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level flight flight. at cruising airspeed, lower the collective to obtain proper power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase right antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading in a airspeed, counterclockwise rotor system (or left pedal pressure in a throttle, clockwise system).
- If cruising airspeed is the same as or centered slightly above descending air speed, simultaneously apply up the necessary cyclic pressure to obtain the approximate all descending attitude.
- If the pilot wants to decelerate, the airspeed. cyclic must be moved aft.
- If the pilot desires to descend with and increased airspeed, then forward cyclic is all that is required if mainly airspeed remains under the limit.
- As the helicopter stabilizes descent. at any forward airspeed, the fuselage attitude will streamline as due to the airflow over the horizontal stabilizer.
- As the aircraft's airspeed changes, the airflow over the vertical stabilizer or fin changes, so the pedals must be adjusted for trim.
- The pilot should always remember that the total lift and thrust vectoring is controlled by the cyclic.
- If a certain airspeed is desired, it will require a certain amount of cyclic and collective movement for level flight.
- If the cyclic is moved, the thrust-versus-lift ratio is changed.
- Aft cyclic directs more power to lift, and altitude increases.
- Forward cyclic directs more power to thrust, and airspeed increases.
- If the collective is not changed and there is a change only in cyclic, the total thrust to lift ratio does not change: aft cyclic results in a climb, and forward cyclic results in a descent with the be corresponding airspeed changes. to To level off from the descent, lead the desired altitude by approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent.
- For a example, a 500-fpm rate of descent would require a 50-foot lead.
- At this point, increase the collective to obtain cruising power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase left antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading (right pedal or pressure in a clockwise rotor system).
- Adjust the cyclic to obtain cruising airspeed and a level flight atti tude as the desired altitude is reached. to
Common Errors
- is 1.
- Failure to maintain constant angle of decent duri ng training.
- 2.
- Failure to level-off the aircraft sufficiently, which results in recovery below the desired altitude.
- 3.
- Failure to adjust antitorque pedal pressures for changes in power. in
Vertical Takeoff to a Hover
- A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter from the ground vertically to a skid height of two to three feet, while maintaining a constant heading.
- Once the desired skid height is achieved, the helicopter should remain nearly motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude and on a constant heading.
- The maneuver requires a high degree of concentration and coordination.
Technique
- The pilot on the controls needs to clear the area left, right, and above to perform a vertical takeoff to a hover.
- The pilot should remain focused outside the aircraft and obtain clearance to take off from the controlling tower.
- If necessary, the pilot who is not on the controls assists in clearing the aircraft and provides adequate warning of any obstacles and any unannounced or unusual drift/altitude changes.
- Heading control, direction of turn, and rate of turn at hover are all controlled by using the pedals.
- Hover height, rate of ascent, and the rate of descent are controlled by using the collective.
- Helicopter position and the direction of travel are controlled by the cyclic.
- After receiving the proper clearance and ensuring that the area is clear of obstacles and traffic, begin the maneuver with the collective in the down position and the cyclic in a neutral position, or slightly into the wind.
- Very slowly increase the collective until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or wheels.
- As collective and torque increases, antitorque must adjusted as well.
- Therefore, as the aircraft begins to get light on the landing gear, apply appropriate antitorque pedal maintain aircraft heading.
- Continue to apply pedals as necessary to maintain heading and coordinate the cyclic for vertical ascent.
- As the helicopter slowly leaves the ground, check for proper attitude control response and helicopter center of gravity.
- A slow ascent will allow stopping if responses are outside the normal parameters indicating hung entangled landing gear, center of gravity problems, or control issues.
- If a roll or tilt begin, decrease the collective and determine the cause of the roll or tilt.
- Upon reaching the desired hover altitude, adjust the flight controls as necessary maintain position over the intended hover area.
- Student pilots should be reminded that while at a hover, the helicopter rarely ever level.
- Helicopters usually hover left side low due to the tail rotor thrust being counteracted by the main rotor tilt.
- A nose low or high condition is generally caused by loading.
- Once stabilized, check the engine instruments and note the power required to hover.
- Excessive movement of any flight control requires a change the other flight controls.
- For example, if the helicopter drifts to one side while hovering, the pilot naturally moves the cyclic in the opposite direction.
- When this is done, part of the vertical thrust is diverted, resulting in a loss of altitude.
- To maintain altitude, increase the collective.
- This increases drag on the blades and tends to slow them down.
- To counteract the drag and maintain rpm, increase the throttle.
- Increased throttle means increased torque, so the pilot must add more pedal pressure to maintain the heading.
- This can easily lead to overcontrolling the helicopter.
- However, as level of proficiency increases, prob lems associated with overcontrolling decrease.
- Helicopter controls are usually more driven by pressure than by gross control movements.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Failing to ascend vertically as the helicopter becomes airborne.
- 2.
- Pulling excessive collective to become airborne, causing the helicopter to gain too much altitude.
- 3.
- Overcontrolling the antitorque pedals, which not only changes the heading of the helicopter, but also changes the rpm.
- 4.
- Reducing throttle rapidly in situations in proper rpm has been exceeded, usually resulting exaggerated heading changes and loss of lift, in loss of altitude.
- 5.
- Failing to ascend slowly.
Hovering
- A stationary hover is a maneuver in which the helicopter maint ained in nearly motionless flight over a reference at a constant altitude and on a constant heading.
Technique
- To maintain a hover over a point, use sideview and peripheral vision to look for small changes in the helicopter's and altitude.
- When these changes are noted, make necessary con trol inputs before the helicopter starts move from the point.
- To detect small variations in or position, the main area of visual attention needs some distance from the aircraft, using various points on helicopter or the tip-path plane as a reference.
- Looking closely or looking down leads to overcontrolling.
- Obviously, in order to remain over a certain point, know where the is, but do not focus all attention there.
- As with a takeoff, the pilot controls altitude with the tive and maintains a constant rpm with the throttle.
- The is used to maintain the helicopter's position; the pedals, control heading.
- To maintain the helicopter in a hover, make small, smooth, coordinated corrections.
- As desired effect occurs, remove the correction in order to stop helicopter's movement.
- For example, if the helicopter to move rearward, apply a small amount of forward pressure.
- However, neutralize this press ure just before helicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin to move After experience is gained, a pilot develops a certain for the helicopter.
- Small deviations can be felt and so you can make the corrections before the helicopter actually moves.
- A certain relaxed looseness develops, controlling the helicopter becomes seco nd nature, rather a mechanical response.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Tenseness and slow reactions to movements of helicopter.
- 2.
- Failure to allow for lag in cyclic and collective which leads to overcontrolling.
- It is very common a student to get ahead of the helicopter.
- Due to it requires some small time period for the helicopter to respond. which 3.
- Confusing attitude changes for altitude changes, which in results in improper use of the controls. resulting 4.
- Hovering too high, creating a hazardous flight condition.
- The height velocity chart should be referenced to determine the maximum skid height to hover and safely recover the helicopter should a malfunction occur. is 5.
- Hovering too low, resulting in occasional touchd own. point 6.
- Becoming overly confident over prepared surfaces when taking off to a hover.
- Be aware that dynamic rollover accidents usually occur over a level surface.
Hovering Turn
- attitude A hovering turn is a maneuver performed at hovering height the in which the nose of the helicopter is rotated either left or to right while maintaining position over a reference point on the altitude surface.
- Hovering turns can also be made around the mast or to be tail of the aircraft.
- The maneuver requires the coordination the of all flight controls and demands prec ise control near the too surface.
- A pilot should maintain a constant altitude, rate of turn, and rpm. point
Technique
- Initiate the turn in either direction by applying anti-torque collecpedal pressure toward the desired direction.
- It should be noted cyclic that during a turn to the left, more power is required because to left pedal pressure increases the pitch angle of the tail rotor, stabilized which, in turn, requires additional power from the engine.
- A the turn to the right requires less power. (On helicopters with a the clock wise rotating main rotor, right pedal increases the pitch begins angle and, therefore, requires more power.) cyclic the As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary (usually into forward. the wind) to keep the helicopter over the desired spot.
- To continue the turn, add more pedal pressure as the helicopter "feel" turns to the crossw ind position.
- This is because the wind is seen, striking the tail surface and tail rotor area, making it more difficult for the tail to turn into the wind.
- As pedal pressures and increase due to crosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressure than into the wind to maintain position.
- Use the collective with the throttle to maintain a constant altitude and rpm. []
- After the 90° portion of the turn, decrease pedal pressure the slightly to maintain the same rate of turn.
- Approaching the 180°, or downwind portion, anticipate opposite pedal pressure due to the tail moving from an upwind position to a downpitch, wind position.
- At this point, the rate of turn has a tend ency for to increase at a rapid rate due to the tendency of the tail inertia, surfaces to weathervane.
- Because of the tailwind condition, hold rearward cyclic pressure to keep the helicopter over the same spot. is The horizontal stabilizer has a tendency to lift the tail during a tailwind condition.
- This is the most difficult portion of the hovering turn.
- Horizontal and vertical stabilizers have several different designs and locations, including the canted stabilizers used on some Hughes and Schweizer helicopters.
- The primary purpose of the vertical stabilizer is to unload the work of the antitorque system and to aid in trimming the to helicopter in flight should the antitorque system fail.
- The if horizontal stabilizer provides for a more usable CG range and aids in trimming the helicopter longitudinally.
- Because of the helicopter's tendency to weathervane, maintaining the same rate of turn from the 180° posit ion actually requires some pedal pressure opposite the direction of turn.
- If a pilot does not apply opposite pedal pressure, the helicopter tends to turn at a faster rate.
- The amount of pedal pressure and cyclic deflection throughout the turn depends on the wind velocity.
- As the turn is finished on the upwind heading, apply opposite pedal pressure to stop the turn.
- Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keep the helicopter from drifting.
- Control pressures and direction of application change continuously throughout the turn.
- The most dramatic change the pedal pressure (and corresponding power requirement) necessary to control the rate of turn as the helicopter moves through the downwind portion of the maneuver.
- Turns can be made in either direction; however, in a high wind condition, the tail rotor may not be able to produce enough thrust, which means the pilot cannot control a turn the right in a counterclockwise rotor system.
- Therefore, control is ever questiona ble, first attempt to make a 90° turn to the left.
- If sufficient tail rotor thrust exists to turn the helicopter crosswind in a left turn, a right turn can be successfully controlled.
- The opposite applies to helicopters with clockwise rotor systems.
- In this case, start the turn to the right.
- Hovering turns should be avoided in winds strong enough to preclude sufficient aft cyclic control to maintain the helicopter on the selected surface reference point when headed downwind.
- Check the flight manual for the manufacturer's recomm endations for this limitation.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Failing to maintain a slow, constant rate of turn.
- 2.
- Failing to maintain position over the reference 3.
- Failing to maintain rpm within normal range.
- 4.
- Failing to maintain constant altitude.
- 5.
- Failing to use the antitorque pedals properly.
Hovering - Forward Flight
- Forward hovering flight is normally used to move a helicopter to a specific location, and it may begin from a stationary hover.
- During the maneuver, constant groundspeed, and heading should be maintained.
Technique
- Before starting, pick out two references directly in front in line with the helicopter.
- These reference points should kept in line throughout the maneuver.
- []
- Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height applying forward pressure on the cyclic.
- As movement begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral position maintain low groundspeed - no faster than a brisk Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed and path over the ground with the cyclic, a constant with the antitorque pedals, altitude with the collective, the proper rpm with the throttle.
- To stop the forward movement, apply rearward pressure until the helicopter stops.
- As forward motion return the cyclic to the neutral position to prev ent movement.
- Forward movement can also be stopped simply applying rearward pressure to level the helicopter and allowing it to drift to a stop.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting erratic movement over the surface.
- 2.
- Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting in excessive heading change.
- 3.
- Failure to maintain desired hovering height. point.
- 4.
- Failure to maintain proper rpm.
- 5.
- Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.
Hovering - Sideward Flight
- Sideward hovering flight may be necessary to move the helicopter to a specific area when conditions make it impossible to use forward flight.
- During the maneu ver, a constant groundspeed, altitude, and heading should be altitude, maintained.
Technique
- Before starting sideward hovering flight, ensure the area and for the hover is clear, especially at the tail rotor.
- Constantly be monitor hover height and tail rotor clearance during all hovering maneuvers to prevent dynamic rollover or tail rotor strikes to the ground.
- Then, pick two points of in-line by reference in the direction of sideward hovering flight to help maintain the proper ground track.
- These reference points to should be kept in line throughout the maneuver.
- [] walk.
- Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by heading applying cyclic toward the side in which the movement is and desired.
- As the movement begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral position to maintain low groundspeed - no faster than a brisk walk.
- Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant cyclic groundspeed and ground track with cyclic.
- Maintain heading, stops, rearward by in which in this maneuver is perpendicular to the ground track, with the antitorque pedals, and a constant altitude with the collective.
- Use the throttle to maintain the proper operating rpm. Be aware that the nose tends to weathervane into the wind.
- Changes in the pedal position will change the rpm and must be corrected by collective and/or throttle changes to maintain altitude.
- To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic pres sure in the direction opposite to that of movement and hold it until the helicopter stops.
- As motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutral position to prevent movement in the opposite direction.
- Applying sufficient opposite cyclic pressure to level the helicopter may also stop sideward movem ent.
- The helicopter then drifts to a stop.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in overcontrolling and erratic movement over the surface.
- 2.
- Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting in excessive heading change.
- 3.
- Failure to maintain desired hovering height. or 4.
- Failure to maintain proper rpm.
- 5.
- Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting the maneuver.
- A
Hovering - Rearward Flight
- Rearward hovering flight may be necessary to move the helicopter to a specific area when the situation is such that to forward or sideward hovering flight cannot be used.
- During the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed, altitude, and heading.
- Due to the limited visibility behind a helicopter, it is important that the area behind the helicopter be cleared before beginning the maneuver.
- Use of ground personnel is In rec ommended.
Technique
- Before starting rearward hovering flight, pick out two reference points in front of, and in line with the heli copter just like hovering forw ard.
- [] The movement of the helicopter should be such that these points remain in line.
- Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by applying rearward pressure on the cyclic.
- After the movement has begun, position the cyclic to maintain a slow groundspeed - no faster than a brisk walk.
- Throughout the maneuver, maintain constant grounds peed and ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorque pedals, constant altitude with the collective, and the proper rpm with the throttle.
- To stop the rearward movement, apply forward cyclic and hold it until the helicopter stops.
- As the motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutral position.
- Also, as in the case of forward and sideward hovering flight, opposite cyclic can be used to level the helicopter and let it drift to a stop.
- Tail rotor clearance must be maintained.
- Generally, a higher-thannormal hover altitude is preferred.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Exaggerated movement of the cyclic resulting in overcontrolling and an uneven movement over the surface.
- 2.
- Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting in excessive heading change.
- 3.
- Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
- 4.
- Failure to maintain proper rpm.
- 5.
- Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting the maneuver.
Taxiing
- Taxiing refers to operations on or near the surface of taxiways other prescribed routes.
- Helicopters utilize three different types of taxiing.
Hover Taxi
- hover taxi is used when operating below 25 feet above ground level (AGL).
- [] Since hover taxi is just like forward, sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique perform it is not presented here.
Air Taxi
- An air taxi is preferred when movements require greater distances within an airport or heliport bounda ry.
- [] this case, fly to the new location; however, it is expected that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet AGL with an appropriate airspeed and will avoid over flight of other aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.
- Before starting, determine the appropriate airspeed altitude combination to remain out of the cross-hatched shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram (see Figure Additionally, be aware of crosswind conditions that lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
- Pick out two references directly in front of the helicopter for the ground path These reference points should be kept in line throughout maneuver.
- Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height applying forward pressure on the cyclic.
- As move begins, attain the desired airspeed with the cyclic.
- Control desired altitude with the collective and rpm with the Throughout the maneuver, maintain a desired groundspeed and ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading antitorque pedals, the desired altitude with the collective, and proper operating rpm with the throttle.
- To stop the forward movement, apply aft cyclic pressure reduce forward speed.
- Simultaneously lower the coll ective initiate a descent to hover altitude.
- As forward motion return the cyclic to the neutral posit ion to prevent movement.
- As approaching the proper hover altitude, the collective as necessary to stop descent at hover (much like a quick stop maneuver (see page 10-4)).
- 1.
- Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in airspeed control and erratic movement over surface.
- 2.
- Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulti in excessive heading change.
- 3.
- Failure to maintain desired altitude.
- 4.
- Failure to maintain proper rpm.
- 5.
- Overflying parked aircraft causing possible dama from rotor downwash.
- 6.
- Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the height/velocity diagram.
- 7.
- Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
- 8.
- Excessive tail-low attitudes.
- 9.
- Excessive power used or required to stop.
- 10.
- Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.
Surface Taxi
- A surface taxi is used to minimize the effects of rotor downwash in wheel-type helicopters.
- [] Surface taxiing in skid type helicopters is generally not recommended due to the high risk of dynamic rollover; for more information, refer to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards. and or 7-1 ).
- The helicopter should be in a stationary position on the surface could with the collective full down and the rpm the same as that used for a hover.
- This rpm should be maintained throughout desired. the maneuver.
- Then, move the cyclic slightly forward and the apply gradual upward press ure on the collective to move the helicopter forward along the surface.
- Use the antitorque pedals to maintain heading and the cyclic to maintain ground by track.
- The collective controls starting, stopping, and speed ment while taxiing.
- The higher the collective pitch, the faster the the taxi speed; however, do not taxi faster than a brisk walk.
- If throttle. the helicopter is equipped with brakes, use them to help slow down.
- Do not use the cyclic to control groundspeed. with During a crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind a sufficient amount to eliminate any drifting movement. to to 1.
- Improper use of cyclic. stops, rearward 2.
- Failure to use antitorque pedals for heading control. increase altitude improper the ng ge 3.
- Improper use of the controls during crosswind operations.
- 4.
- Failure to maintain proper rpm. to
Normal Takeoff from a Hover
- A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition to forward flight and is executed to increase altitude safely and expeditiously.
- Before initiating a takeoff, the pilot should of ensure that the proper checklist has been completed and the helicopter systems are within normal limits.
- During the in takeoff, fly a prof ile that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram.
Technique
- Refer to [] (position 1).
- Bring the helicopter to a hover and perform a hover and systems check, which includes power, balance, and flight controls prior to continuing flight.
- The power check should include an evaluation of the amount of excess power available; that is, the difference between the power being used to hover and the power available at the existing altitude and temperature conditions.
- The balance condition of the helicopter is indicated by the position of the cyclic when maintaining a stationary hover.
- Wind necessitates some cyclic deflection, but there should not be an extreme deviation from neutral.
- Flight controls must move freely, and the heli copter should respond normally.
- Then, visually clear the surrounding area.
- Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and slowly easi ng the cyclic forward (position 2).
- As the helicopter starts to move forward, increase the collective, as nece ssary, to prevent the helicopter from sinking and adjust the throttle to maintain rpm. The increase in power requires an increase in the proper antitorque pedal to maintain heading.
- Maintain a straight takeoff path throughout the takeoff.
- While accelerating through effect ive translational lift (position 3), the helicopter begins to climb, and the nose tends to rise due to increased lift.
- At this point, adjust the collective to obtain normal climb power and apply enough forward cyclic overcome the tendency of the nose to rise.
- At position 4, hold an attitude that allows a smooth acceleration toward climbi ng airspeed and a commensurate gain in altitude so that the takeoff profile does not take the helicopter through any the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram.
- As airspeed increases (position 5), place the aircraft trim and allow a crab to take place to maintain ground track and a more favorable climb configuration.
- As the helicopter continues to climb and accele rate to best rate-of-climb, apply aft cyclic pressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normal climb attitude.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Failing to use sufficient collective pitch to prev ent loss of altitude prior to attaining translat ional lift.
- 2.
- Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the transition from hovering to forward flight without forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter to gain excessive altitude before acquiring airspeed.
- 3.
- Assuming an extreme nose-down attitude near the surface in the transition from hovering to forward flight.
- 4.
- Failing to maintain a straight flightpath over the surface (ground track).
- 5.
- Failing to maintain proper airspeed during the climb.
- 6.
- Failing to adjust the throttle to maintain proper rpm.
- 7.
- Failing to transition to a level crab to maintain ground track.
Normal Takeoff from the Surface
- Normal takeoff from the surface is used to move the helicopter from a position on the surface into effective translational and a normal climb using a minimum amount of power. surface is dusty or covered with loose snow, this technique provides the most favorable visibility conditions and the possibility of debris being ingested by the engine.
Technique
- Place the helicopter in a stationary position on the sur Lower the collective to the full down position, and the rpm below operating rpm. Visually clear the area select terrain features or other objects to aid in maintaining the desired track during takeoff and climb out.
- Increase throttle to the proper rpm, and raise the collective until the helicopter is light on the skids.
- Hesitate momentarily and adjust the cyclic and antitorque pedals, as neces sary, prevent any surface movement.
- Continue to apply collective.
- As the helicopter leaves the ground, use cyclic, as necessary, to begin forward movement as is gained.
- Continue to accelera te.
- As effective translational lift is attained, the helicopter begins to climb.
- Adjust and power, if necessary, to climb in the same manner takeoff from a hover.
- A second, less efficient, but acceptable, technique, is to attempt a vertical takeoff to evaluate if or lift is sufficient to clear obstructions.
- This allows helicopter to be returned to the takeoff position if required.
Common Errors
- 1.
- Departing the surface in an attitude that is too low.
- This situation requires the use of exces sive to initiate a climb.
- 2.
- Using excessive power combined with a level which causes a vertical climb, unless needed obstructions and landing considerations.
- 3.
- Application of the collective that is too abrupt departing the surface, causing rpm and heading errors.
Crosswind Considerations During Takeoffs
- If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of maneuver.
- [] The cyclic is held into the sufficient amount to maintain the desired ground track the takeoff.
- The heading is maintained with the use of antitorque pedals.
- In other words, the rotor is tilted into wind so that the sideward movement of the helicopter just enough to counter act the crosswind effect.
- To the nose from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on side opposite the cyclic.
- After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, make a lift coordinated turn into the wind to maintain the desired ground If the track.
- This is called crabbing into the wind.
- The stronger the crosswind, the more the helicopter has to be turned into the reduces wind to maintain the desired ground track.
- []
Ground Reference Maneuvers
- Ground reference maneuvers may be used as training face. exercises to help develop a division of attention between reduce the flightpath and ground references, and while controlling and the slowly to upward the altitude attitude as a power the nosepower attitude, for when control the the wind a for the the is prevent it is the the helicopter and watching for other airc raft in the vicinity.
- Other examples of ground reference maneuvers are flights for photographic or observation purposes, such as pipe line or power line checks.
- Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn of should be done to ensure the area is free of conflicting traffic.
Rectangular Course
- The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the ground track of the helicopter is kept equidistant from the sides of a selected rectangular area.
- While performing the maneuver, the altitude and airs peed should be held constant.
- The rectangular course helps develop recognition of a drift toward or away from a line parallel to the intended ground track.
- This is helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an airport runway during the various legs of the airport traffic pattern and is also useful in observation and photographic flights.
- Maintaining ground track while trying to fly a straight line can be very difficult for new pilots to do.
- It is important to understand the effects of the wind and how to compensate for this.
- For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular field, or an area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads, with sides approximately a mile in length.
- The area selected should be well away from other air traffic.
- Fly the maneuver approximately 500 to 1,000 feet above the ground as appropriate.
- If the student finds it difficult to maintain a proper ground track at that higher altitude, lower the altitude for better ground reference until they feel more comfortable and are able to grasp the concept better.
- Altitude can be raised up to 1,000 feet as proficiency improves.
- Fly the helicopter parallel to and at a uniform distance, about one-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries, and to not directly above the boundaries.
- For best results, position flightpath outside the field boundaries just far enough away that they may be easily observed from either pilot seat by looking out the side of the helicopter.
- If an attempt is made to fly directly above the edges of the field, there will be no usable reference points to start and complete the turns.
- In addition, the closer the track of the helicopt er is to the field a boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points.
- The edges of the selected field should be seen while be seated in a normal position and looking out the side of the helicopter during either a left-hand or right-hand course.
- The distance of the ground track from the edges of the field should be the same regardless of whether the course is flown to the left or right.
- All turns should be started when the helicopter is abeam the corners of the field boundaries.
- The bank nor mally of should not exceed 30°-45° in light winds.
- Strong winds may require more bank.
- The pilot should understand that when trying to fly a straight line and maintain a specific heading, aircraft heading must be adjusted in order to compensate for the winds and stay on the proper ground track.
- Also, keep in mind that a constant scan flight instruments and outside references aid in maintaining proper ground track.
- Although the rectangular course may be entered from any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind heading.
- [] while approaching the field boundary on the downwind leg, begin planning for an upcoming turn.
- Since there is a tailwind on the downwind leg, the helicopter's groundspeed is increased (position 1).
- During the turn, the wind causes the heli copter to drift away from the field.
- To counteract this effect, the roll-in should be made at a fairly fast rate with a relatively steep bank (position 2).
- This is normally the steepest turn of the maneuver.
- As the turn progresses, the tailwind component decreases, which decreases the groundspeed.
- Consequently, the bank angle and rate-of-turn must be reduced gradually to ensure that upon completion of the turn, the crosswind ground track continues to be the same distance from the edge of the field.
- Upon completion of the turn, the helicopter should be level and crabbed into the wind in order to maintain the proper ground track.
- Keep in mind that in order to maintain proper ground track the helicopter may have to be flown almost sideways depending on the amount of wind.
- The forward cyclic that is applied for airspeed will be in the direction of the intended flight path.
- For this example, it will be in the direction of the downwind corner of the field.
- However, since the wind is now pushing the helicopter away from the field, establish the proper drift correction by heading slightly into the wind.
- Therefore, the turn should be greater than a 90° change in heading (position 3).
- If the turn has been made properly, the field boundary again appears to be one-fourth one-half mile away.
- While on the crosswind leg, the wind correction should be adjusted, as necessary, to maintain a uniform distance from the field boundary (position 4).
- As the next field boundary is being approached (position 5), plan for the next turn.
- Since a wind correction angle is being held into the wind and toward the field, this next turn requires turn of less than 90°.
- Since there is now a headwind, the groundspeed decreases during the turn, the bank initially must medium and progressively decrease as the turn proc eeds.
- To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the helicopter becomes level at a point aligned with the corner of the field just as the longitudinal axis of the helicopter again becomes parallel to the field boundary (position 6).
- The distance from the field boundary should be the same as on the other sides the field.
- Continue to evaluate each turn and determine the or shallowness based on the winds.
- It is also important remember that as the bank angles are adjusted in the the pilot is subsequently forced to make changes with flight controls.
- 1.
- Faulty entry technique.
- 2.
- Poor planning, orientation, and/or division of 3.
- Uncoordinated flight control application.
- 4.
- Improper correction for wind drift.
- 5.
- Failure to maintain selected altitude and airspeed.
- 6.
- Selection of a ground reference with no emergency landing area within gliding distance.
- 7.
- Not flying a course parallel to the intended area traffic pattern or square field).
S-Turns
- Another training maneuver to use is the S-turn, which correct for wind drift in turns.
- This maneuver requires turns steepness to the left and right. to turn, the attention. suitable (e.g., helps The pilot can choose to use a road, a fence, or a railroad for a reference line.
- Regardless of what is used, it should be straight for a considerable distance and should extend as nearly perpendicular to the wind as possible.
- The object of of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half circ les of equal size on opposite sides of the reference line.
- [] The maneuver should be performed at a constant altitude between is 500 and 800 feet above the terrain.
- As mentioned previously, if the student pilot is having a difficult time maintaining the proper altitude and airspeed, have him or her attempt the S-turn at a lower altitude, providing better ground reference.
- The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference line perpendicular to the wind and starting the maneuver with is the helicopter facing downwind.
- As the helicopter crosses the reference line, immediately establish a bank.
- This initial bank is the steepest A used throughout the maneuver since the helicopter is headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is greatest of (position 1).
- Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to describe a ground track of a half circle.
- Time the turn so that, as the rollout is completed, the helicopter is crossing the reference line perpendicular to it and headi ng directly upwind (position 2).
- Immediately enter a bank in the opposite direction to begin the second half of the "S" (position 3).
- Since the helicopter is now on an upwind heading, this bank (and the one just completed before crossing the reference line) is the shallowest in the maneuver.
- Gradually increase the bank, as necessary, to describe a ground track that is a half circle identical in size to the one previously completed on the other side of the refere nce line (position 4).
- The steepest bank in this turn should be attained just prior to rollout when the helicopter is approaching the reference line nearest the downwind heading.
- Time the turn so that as the rollout is com plete, the helicopter is perpendicular to the reference line and is again heading directly downwind (position 5).
- In summary, the angle of bank required at any given a point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground speed.
- The faster the groundspeed is, the steeper the bank is; the slower the groundspeed is, the shallower the bank is.
- To to express it another way, the more nearly the helicopter is to a downwind heading, the steeper the bank; the more nearly it is to an upwind heading, the shallower the bank.
- In addition to varying the angle of bank to correct for drift in order to maintain the proper radius of turn, the helicopter must also be flown with a drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its ground track; except, of course, when it is on direct upwind or downwind headings or there is no wind. in One would normally think of the fore and aft axis of the heli copter as being tangent to the ground track pattern at each point.
- However, this is not the case.
- During the turn on the upwind side of the reference line (side from which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of the heli copter toward the outside of the circle.
- During the turn on the downwind side the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the direction from which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of the helicopter toward the inside of the circle.
- In either case, it obvious that the helicopter is being crabbed into the wind just as it is when trying to maintain a straight ground track.
- The amount of crab depends on the wind velocity and how close the helicopter is to a crosswind position.
- The stronger the wind is, the greater the crab angle is at any given position for a turn of a given radius.
- The more nearly the helicopter to a crosswind position, the greater the crab angle.
- The maximum crab angle should be at the point of each half circle farthest from the reference line. standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since the radius depends on the airspeed of the helicopter, the velocity the wind, and the initial bank chosen for entry.
- The only standard is crossing the ground reference line straight and level and having equal radius semi-circles on both sides.
- 1.
- Using antitorque pedal pressures to assist turns.
- 2.
- Slipping or skidding in the turn.
- 3.
- An unsymmetrical ground track during S-turns across a road.
- 4.
- Improper correction for wind drift.
- 5.
- Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
- 6.
- Excessive bank angles.
Turns Around a Point
- This training maneuver requires flying constant radius turns around a preselected point on the ground using a bank angle of approximately 30°-45°, while maintaining both constant altitude and the same distance from the point throughout the maneuver.
- [] The objective, as in other ground reference maneuvers, is to develop the ability subconsciously control the helicopter while dividing attention between flightpath, how the winds are affecting the turn and ground references and watching for other air traffic in the vicinity.
- This is also used in high reconnaissance, observation, and photography flight.
- The factors and principles of drift correction that are involved S-turns are also applicable to this maneuv er.
- As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant radius around a point requires the pilot to change the angle of bank constantly and make numerous control changes to compensate for the wind.
- The closer the helicopter is to a direct downwind heading at which the groundspeed is greatest, the steeper bank and the greater the rate of turn required to establish proper wind correct ion angle.
- The closer the helicopter a direct upwind heading at which the groundspeed is the shallower the bank and the lower the rate of turn to establish the proper wind correction angle.
- Therefore, throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of turn be varied gradually and in proportion to the groundspeed corrections made for the wind.
- The point selected for turns should be prominent and distinguishable, yet small enough to present a reference.
- Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar landmarks are usually suitable.
- The point should be in an away from communities, livestock, or groups of people the ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to Additionally, the area should be clear and suitable for emergency landings should they be required.
- Just as S-turns require that the helicopter be turned into wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around point.
- During the downwind half of the circle, the helicopter's nose must be progressively turned toward the inside of circle; during the upwind half, the nose must be progressively turned toward the outside.
- The downwind half of the around the point may be compared to the downwind the S-turn, while the upwind half of the turn around a may be compared to the upwind side of the S-turn.
- Upon gaining experience in performing turns around a and developing a good understanding of the effects of drift and varying of the bank angle and wind correction angle as required, entry into the maneuver may be from any point.
- When entering this maneuver at any point, the radius of the turn must be carefully selected, taking into account the wind velocity and groundspeed so that an excessive bank is not required later to maintain the proper ground track.
- 1.
- Faulty entry technique.
- 2.
- Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
- 3.
- Uncoordinated flight control application.
- 4.
- Improper correction for wind drift.
- 5.
- Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
- 6.
- Failure to maintain an equal distance around the point.
- 7.
- Excessive bank angles.
Traffic Patterns
- A traffic pattern promotes safety by establishing a common track to help pilots determine their landing order and provide common reference.
- A traffic pattern is also useful to control the flow of traffic, part icularly at airports without operating the control towers.
- It affords a measure of safety, separation, the protection, and administrative control over arriving, is to departing, and circling aircraft.
- Due to specialized operating least, character istics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well required in the same traffic environment.
- At multiple-use airports, regulation states that helicopters should always avoid the must flow of fixed-wing traff ic.
- To do this, be familiar with the patterns typically flown by airplanes.
- In addition, learn how to fly these patterns in case air traff ic control (ATC) requests a fixed-wing traffic pattern be flown.
- Traffic patterns are easily initially taught during the day.
- Traffic patterns at night may precise need to be adjusted; for more information, refer to Chapter small 12, Night Operations. area on others. any the a the turn side of point point wind A normal airplane traffic pattern is rectangular, has five named legs, and a designated altitude, usually 1,000 feet AGL.
- While flying the traffic pattern, pilots should always keep in mind noise abatement rules and flying friendly to avoid dwellings and livestock.
- A pattern in which all turns are to the left is called a standard pattern.
- [] The takeoff leg (item 1) normally consists of the aircraft's flightpath after takeoff.
- This leg is also called the departure leg.
- Turn to the crosswind leg (item 2) after passing the departure end of the runway when at a safe altitude.
- Fly the downwind leg (item 3) parallel to the runway at the designated traffic pattern altitude and distance from the runway.
- Begin the base leg (item 4) at a point selected according to other traffic and wind conditions.
- If the wind is very strong, begin the turn sooner than normal.
- If the wind A is light, delay the turn to base.
- The final approach (item 5) is the path the airc raft flies immediately prior to touchdown.
- Flying a fixed wing traffic pattern at 1,000 feet AGL upon the request of ATC should not be a problem for a helicopter unless conducting specific maneuvers that require specific altitudes.
- There are variations at different localities and at airports with operating control towers.
- For example, ATC may have airplanes in a left turn pattern (as airplane pilots are usually seated in the left), seat and a right turn pattern for is helicopters (as those pilots are usually in the right seat).
- This arrangement affords the best view from each of the respective cockpits.
- Always consult the Airport/Facility Directory for the traffic pattern procedures at your airport/heliport.
- When approaching an airport with an operating control tower in a helicopter, it is possible to expedite traffic by stating intentions.
- The communication consists of:
- 1.
- The helicopter's call sign, "Helicopter 8340J." 2.
- The helicopter's position, "10 miles west." 3.
- The "request for landing and hover to ..." To avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic, the tower often to clears direct to an approach point or to a particular runway intersection nearest the destination point.
- At uncontrolled airports, if at all possible, adhere to standard practices and patterns.
- Traffic pattern entry procedures at an airport with an operating control tower are specified by the controller.
- At uncontrolled airports, traffic pattern altitudes and entry procedures may vary according to established local procedures.
- Helicopter pilots should be aware of the standard airplane traffic pattern and avoid it.
- Generally, helicopters make a lower altitude pattern opposite from the fixed wing pattern and make their approaches to some point other than the runway in use by the fixed wing traffic.
- Chapter 7 of the Airplane flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3 discusses this in greater detail.
- For information concerning traffic pattern and landing direction, utilize airport advisory service or UNICOM, when available.
- The standard departure procedure when using the fixedwing traffic pattern is usually a straight-out, downw ind, or right-hand departure.
- When a control tower is in operation, request the type of departure desired.
- In most cases, helicopter departures are made into the wind unless obstacles or traffic dictate otherwise.
- At airports without an operating control tower, comply with the departure procedures established for that airport, if any. helicopter traffic pattern is flown at 500-1,000 feet AGL depending on considerations such as terrain, obstacles, and other aircraft traffic.
- [] This keeps the helicopter out of the flow of fixed-wing traffic.
- A helicopter may take off from a helipad into the wind with a turn to the right after 300 feet AGL or as needed to be in range of forced landing areas.
- When 500 feet AGL is attained, a right turn to parallel the takeoff path is made for the downwind.
- Then, as the intended landing point is about 45 degrees behind the abeam position of the helicopter, a right turn is made, and a descent begun from downwind altitude to approximately 300 feet AGL for a base leg.
- As the helicopter nears the final approach path, the turn to final should be made considering winds and obstructions.
- Depending on obstructions and forced landing areas, the final approach may need to be accomplished from as high as 500 feet AGL.
- The landing area should always be in sight and the angle of approach should never be too high (indicating that the base leg is too close) to the landing area or too low (indicating that the landing area is too far away).
Approaches
- An approach is the transition from traffic pattern altit ude either a hover or to the surface.
- The approach should terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of descent groundspeed reaching zero at the same time.
- Approaches are categorized according to the angle of descent as steep, or shallow.
- In this chapter, concentration is on normal approach.
- Steep and shallow approaches are in the next chapter.
- Use the type of approach best suited to the existing conditions.
- These conditions may include obstacles, size and surface the landing area, density altitude, wind direction and and weight.
- Regardless of the type of approach, it always be made to a specific, predetermined landing
Normal Approach to a Hover
- A normal approach uses a descent angle of between 7° 12°.
- On final approach, at the recommended approach and at approximately 300 feet AGL, the helicopter be on the correct ground track (or ground alignment) for intended landing site, but the axis of the helicopter does and have to be aligned until about 50-100 feet AGL to facilitate a controlled approach.
- [] Just prior to reaching normal, the desired approach angle, begin the approach by lowering the the collective sufficiently to get the helicopter decelerating discussed and descending down the approach angle.
- With the decrease in the collective, the nose tends to pitch down, requiring aft cyclic to maintain the recommended approach airspeed of attitude.
- Adjust antitorque pedals, as necessary, to maintain speed, trim.
- Pilots should visualize the angle from the landing should point to the middle of the skids or landing gear underneath spot. them in the cockpit and maneuver the helicopter down that imaginary slope until the helicopter is at a hover centered over the landing point or touching down centered on the landing point.
- The most important standard for a normal and approach is maintaining a consistent angle of approach to the termination point.
- The collective controls the angle of approach.
- Use the cyclic to control the rate of closure or how fast the helicopter is moving towards the touchdown point. airspeed Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent groundspeed and should rate of closure appear to be increasing.
- At this point, slowly the begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly lower not the collective to maintain approach angle.
- Use the cyclic to maintain a rate of closure equivalent to a brisk walk.
- At approximately 25 knots, depending on wind, the helicopter begins to lose effective translational lift.
- To compensate for loss of effective translational lift, increase the collective to maintain the approach angle, while maintaining the proper rpm. The increase of collective pitch tends to make the nose rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain the proper rate of closure.
- As the helicopter approaches the recommended hover altitude, increase the collective sufficiently to maintain the hover.
- Helicopters require near maximum power to land because the inertia of the helicopter in a descent must be overcome by lift in the rotor system.
- At the same time, apply aft cyclic to stop any forward movement while controlling the heading with antitorque pedals.
- 1.
- Failing to maintain proper rpm during the entire approach.
- 2.
- Improper use of the collective in controlling the angle of descent.
- 3.
- Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to compensate for collective changes during the approach.
- 4.
- Maintaining a constant airspeed on final approach instead of an apparent brisk walk.
- 5.
- Failing to simultaneously arrive at hovering height at and attitude with zero groundspeed.
- 6.
- Low rpm in transition to the hover at the end of the approach.
- 7.
- Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface, which may result in tail rotor strikes.
- A an 8.
- Failure to crab above 100'AGL and slip below 100'AGL.
Normal Approach to the Surface
- A normal approach to the surface or a no-hover landing is often used if loose snow or dusty surface conditions exist.
- These situations could cause severely restricted visibility, or the engine could possibly ingest debris when the helic opter comes to a hover.
- The approach is the same as the normal approach to a hover; however, instead of termin ating at a hover, continue the approach to touchdown.
- Touchdown should occur with the skids level, zero groundspeed, and a rate of descent approaching zero.
- As the helicopter nears the surface, increase the collect ive, as necessary, to cushion the landing on the surf ace, terminate in a skids-level attitude with no forward movement.
- 1.
- Terminating to a hover, and then making a vertical landing.
- 2.
- Touching down with forward movement.
- 3.
- Approaching too slow, requiring the use of excess ive power during the termination.
- 4.
- Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing 5.
- Not maintaining skids aligned with direction of travel at touchdown.
- Any movement or misalignment of the skids or gear can induce dynamic rollover
Crosswind During Approaches
- During a crosswind approach, crab into the wind.
- At approximately 50-100 feet of altitude, use a slip to align the fuselage with the ground track.
- The rotor is tilted into the wind with cyclic pressure so that the sideward movement of the helicopter and wind drift counteracts each other.
- Maintain the heading and ground track with the antitorque pedals.
- Under crosswind approaches, ground track is always controlled by the cyclic movement.
- The heading of the helicopter in hovering maneuvers is always controlled by the pedals.
- The collective controls power, which is altitude a hover.
- This technique should be used on any type of crosswind approach, whether it is a shallow, normal, or steep approach.
Go-Around
- go-around is a procedure for remaining airborne after intended landing is discontinued.
- A go-around may be necessary when:
- • Instructed by the control tower.
- • Traffic conflict occurs.
- • The helicopter is in a position from which it is not safe to continue the approach.
- Any time an approach is uncomfortable, incorrect, or potentially dangerous, abandon the approach.
- The decis ion to make a goaround should be positive and initiated before a critical situation develops.
- When the decision is made, carry it out without hesitation.
- In most cases, when initiating the go-around, power is at a low setting.
- Therefore, the first response is to increase collective to takeoff power.
- This movement is coordinated with the throttle to maintain rpm, and with the proper antitorque pedal to control heading.
- Then, establish a climb attitude and maintain climb speed to go around for another approach.
Chapter Summary
- This chapter introduced basic flight maneuvers and the techniques to perform each of them.
- Common errors and why they happen were also described to help the pilot achieve a better understanding of the maneuver.