Flight planning is the process in which a pilot prepares for an upcoming flight
While often associated with completing a navigation log for a cross-country, flight planning is a process that must be conducted even for local flights in the traffic pattern
It is a descriptive process therefore involving more than one type of navigation
If no wind information is available, plan using statistical winds, make them headwinds to be conservative in your fuel planning
Pilots will chose a route of flight and select cruise altitude based on a variety of factors
Course: is pre-flight
Track: is flown
Charts are all "true" as in true north and must be compensated to find magnetic north
Include the following:
Diverts (direction and channels/frequencies)
Checkpoints:
Check points should be set approximately 10 NM apart
Your first checkpoint should be Top of Climb (TOC) and the last should be Top of Descent (TOD)
Flight Planning:
The purpose of flight planning is to become familiar with information pertaining to an intended flight
The work put in is also necessary to accurately complete FAA Form 7233-1, better known as a flight plan, if one is required
Initial Planning Considerations:
According to FAR 91.103, pilots in command are required to familiarize themselves with information pertaining to the flight
The "how" is a product of flight planning but the "who, what, when, and where" provides a useful starting point
These required actions can be remembered using the acronym "NW KRAFT" or "WX-KRAFTN"
There are no requirements within the Federal Aviation Regulations to select and plan for an alternate
This does not preclude you from being prepared
Instrument Flight Rules:
FAR 91.169 can generally be summed up using the 1-2-3 rule:
If the weather is forecast between 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA to be below 2000' ceiling or less than 3 miles visibility, an alternate is required
In addition to the 1-2-3 rule, if your destination does not have an instrument approach procedure published, an alternate must be chosen in case the field were to fall into instrument meteorologic conditions
If an alternate is required, the alternate airport must have an instrument approach while meeting certain criteria:
800' ceiling, 2 miles visibility, if non-precision approach
600' ceiling, 2 miles visibility, if precision approach
If no approach exists for the alternate runway, descent from cruising altitude must be possible under Visual Flight Rules
Note that minimums published for approaches may differ
Performance Required:
First, determine how much you intend to carry between passengers, cargo, and then fuel, all necessary to complete the weight and balance
With the aircraft weight known, atmospheric information lends to takeoff performance and route selection
Types of Navigation:
Navigation can be accomplished in several ways
Two examples include pilotage and dead reckoning which, although different, are not mutually exclusive
Pilotage:
Navigation with visual landmarks
Dead Reckoning:
Dead recokoning is navigation by planning
Position: A geographic point defined by coordinates
Direction: An angular distance from a reference
Course: the aircrafts intended path
Heading: the direction the aircraft is pointed
Drift Angle: difference between the course and heading
Track: the aircrafts actual flight path over the ground (ground track marker)
When track = course you are flying exactly where you intend
Time: Can be expressed in two ways, as the time of day or elapsed time
Speed: The magnitude of the velocity of an aircraft
Flight Planning & Navigation Tools:
Various tools are necessary to complete a flight plan
Flight planning begins with determining the mission, that is:
What are you carrying?
Where are you going?
Carrying people or baggage impacts fuel and time considerations, which informs route planning and potential intermediate stops to reach the destination
Consider weight and balance limitations (people, baggage, and fuel with reserves) - can it be done in one trip?
Provided the aircraft meets weight and balance mission requirements, determine if it has the necessary takeoff and climb performance, as well as the necessary approach and landing performance
Consider personal minimums with any calculation, including margins of safety relative to chart calculated performance numbers
Route Planning:
Determining a Route:
While the most direct route is often preferred, deviations may be required due to airspace, terrain, availability of navaids/checkpoints, and weather, both winds and obscurations
Checkpoints allow you to follow the progress of your flight against your planning calculations
Landmarks can be checkpoints but may also inform a pilot where they are in relation to checkpoints
Considerations for selection of either are:
Are they unique enough to be identified?
Are they large enough to be found?
Are they small enough to be considered a "point?"
Checkpoints should be appropriately 10 NM apart
They may be points off the route which you can identify when abeam
Use of tools such as satellite maps (Google, Bing, etc.) allow for you to preview checkpoints
Types of Landmarks:
Positive Landmarks:
Hydrography (water features)
Can be positively identified and plotted as a point on a chart (i.e., mountains, large bodies of water, etc.)
You need not pass directly over a positive landmark for it to be useful to you
Be cautious of man-made landmarks as they may have changed, moved, or no longer exist
Hydrography (water features): [Figure 1]
Water features are depicted using two tones of blue, and are considered either "Open Water" or "Inland Water"
"Open Water," a lighter blue tone, shows the shoreline limitations of all coastal water features at the average (mean) high water levels for oceans and seas
Light blue also represents the connecting waters like bays, gulfs, sounds, fjords, and large estuaries
Exceptionally large lakes like the Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, and Lake Okeechobee, etc., are considered Open Water features
The Open Water tone extends inland as far as necessary to adjoin the darker blue "Inland Water" tones
All other bodies of water are marked as "Inland Water" in the darker blue tone
Hydrography (water features)
Linear Landmarks:
Power lines as linear landmarks
Bridges and Viaducts
Causeways
Overpasses and Underpasses
Pipelines
Power lines as linear landmarks
Can be positively identified but not specifically plotted because they extend for some distance
Features such as roads, railroads, coastlines, power lines and rivers may make good timing checkpoints if they are perpendicular to the course line and have other specific environmental particulars that identify your position
Rivers and power lines must be easy to find, either isolated or large so they are unmistakable with confirming landmarks so they can be confirmed
Railroads and major highways are almost always depicted on aeronautical charts
Power lines as linear landmarks
Bridges and Viaducts
Causeways
Overpasses and Underpasses
Pipelines
Power lines as linear landmarks
Uncertain Landmarks:
Features that a pilot suspects he can correlate with the chart, but they may not be fully reliable
Landmarks such as oil wells, and windmills may be repetitious
Objects may look much alike
Spotting Landmarks:
Landmarks may be hard to spot, but there are some tricks you can use:
Offset to the landmark slightly to have better visibility out the side of the aircraft looking straight down
Use Google Earn to spot nearby landmarks to reference when near
Altitude selection depends on a variety of factors which include:
Terrain and Obstacles:
Although seemingly obvious, controlled flight into terrain is still a leading caues of aviation accidents
Terrain and obstacles along the route of flight must be avoided either laterally or vertically
Additionally, a brief study of the map should highlight hazards should the pilot chose to alter the route, in flight
Antenna Towers:
Communication Antennas
Numerous skeletal structures such as radio and television antenna towers exceed 1,000' or 2,000' AGL
Most skeletal structures are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of reduced visibility
These wires can extend about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by at least 2,000 feet
Additionally, new towers may not be on your current chart because the information was not received prior to the printing of the chart
Overhead Wires:
Transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways, natural flyways, such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently follow, such as highway, railroad tracks, etc.
Supporting structures such as guy wires exist here as well
Some locations identify these obstructions with unique sequencing flashing white strobe light systems
However, many power lines do not require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted
Many of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted
Pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant, especially in the case of seaplane and/or float-equipped aircraft
Unmanned Balloons:
Key West Balloon Hazard
The majority of unmanned free balloons currently being operated have, extending below them, either a suspension device to which the payload or instrument package is attached or a trailing wire antenna, or both
You can expect restricted airspace established in the vicinity of these balloons
Good judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft should remain well clear of all unmanned free balloons and flight below them should be avoided at all times
Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility with which communication is established to assist FAA ATC facilities in identifying and flight following unmanned free balloons operating in the airspace
Key West Balloon Hazard
There are other objects or structures that could adversely affect your flight, such as construction cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc.
This is especially true when operating below 500' AGL and morseo below 200' AGL
Also, many of these structures do not meet charting requirements or may not yet be charted because of the charting cycle
Some structures do not require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA recommended it
Notice to Air Missions (NOTAMs) will typically be published for any known unlit structures, but pilot vigilance is imperative in case the FAA has not yet been notified of outages
Glide Distance:
The glide distance of the airplane is based on the glide ratio, a performance number to provide an idea of the options available in an engine out
More than airports, suitable roads and fields options for emergency landings increases with increased altitude
Additionally, regulatory requirements, such as those found in FAR 91.205, specify supplemental survival equipment depending on glide-distance from shore if the flight is conducted for hire
Even further, FAR 91.509 further specifies supplemental survival equipment based on distance from shore
Effects of Winds:
Winds are an important planning consideration both during terminal (surface winds) and cruise (winds aloft) environment
Effects of Surface Winds:
Surface winds are most commonly used for determining an optimal runway in the terminal area
Similarly, surface winds provide insight into optimal landing surfaces in an emergency along a route of flight
Effects of Winds at Cruise:
Wind direction and intensity at various cruise altitudes are an important consideration to determine cruise performance
Winds aloft are the most direct means to plan for winds at cruise altitudes along the route of flight
Headwinds increase flight time and therefore fuel burn, reducing range, while tailwinds do just the opposite
Further, headwinds require for power (increased fuel burn) and tailwinds decrease power requirements (decreased fuel burn)
VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels:
VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
VFR Cruising Altitudes [Figure 1] are established to reduce mid-air collisions by establishing cruise altitudes governed by FAR 91.159 which states:
Except while holding in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less (see VFR Holding), or while turning, each person operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising flight more than 3,000 feet above the surface shall maintain the appropriate altitude or flight level prescribed below, unless otherwise authorized by ATC:
When operating below 18,000 feet MSL and:
On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude + 500 feet (such as 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500); or
On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude + 500 feet (such as 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500)
When operating above 18,000 feet MSL, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC
Account for changes in direction of flight along a flight plan and corresponding altitude changes to meet the standard
Suppose D = distance, TT = total time, AS = air speed, WS = wind speed
Then the equation for a direct headwind and tail wind is TT = D/(AS - WS) + D/(AS + WS) = 150/(100 - 50) + 150/(100 + 50) = 150/50 + 150/150 = 450/150 + 150/150 = 600/150 = 4
With WS = 0 the equation becomes TT = 150/100 + 150/100 = 300/100 = 3
In total, adding each leg, accounting for climb/descent, produces the time enroute
Zulu Time Converstions:
Zulu time, also referred to a Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the standard time for all of aviation
Many website and applications will help pilots calculate these times, which become important when trying to normalize timezones and input departure and arrival times when filing a flight plan
To calculate, determine timezone correction and add (western hemisphere) or subtract (eastern hemisphere) to/from zulu time
Distance Calculations:
Distance is rate time time
You will travel 10% of speed in 6 minutes
If you are traveling at 100 knots ground speed for 6 minutes, how far will you travel?
Distance = 0.1 (see above) x 100
Distance = 10 NM
Using an E6B:
Point to ground speed with the arrow
Find time and read above
For times under 3 minutes, the small arrow may need to be utilized
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU) Flight Log Side 1 (click to enlarge)U.S. Declination MapU.S. Declination MapVFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight LevelsVFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
Completing a NAVLOG:
Navigation logs, or NAVLOGs, is the printed, either physically or digitally, plan
This plan accounts for the environment's effects on the aircraft, as well as aircraft anomalies like deviation
NAVLOGs come in many forms and there is no perfect form; its about personal preference
An example of a generic NAVLOG is provided below:
ORANGE Section
Fill out the departure and arrival airport information including frequencies, traffic altitudes, and heights above ground
Fill in information concerning flight service or any item you will want to reference in regards to that airport
If you want, draw an airport diagram in the box but still carry a larger printed diagram for easier use and more detail
YELLOW Section
Determine a MSL cruise altitude based on weather and direction of flight
Reference above diagram
Calculate pressure altitude for your airport (important for performance calculations)
Determine the temperature (important for performance calculations)
Calculate density altitude (important for performance calculations)
Determine a horsepower setting and the accompanying RPM settings, KTAS and Gallons per Hour
GREEN Section
Write in the aircraft type
Used to plot any changes to a heading for the entire route to estimate times, distances and fuel used
True Course (TC): found on sectional using plotter
True Wind: found on winds aloft forecasts
True Heading (TH): calculated with flight computer (back of flight calculator)
Variation (Var): simply the difference between true north and magnetic north, found on sectional for your route
Deviation (Dev): found on the compass card in your aircraft
Magnetic Heading (MH): TH corrected for variation
Course Heading (CH): MH corrected for deviation
Ground Speed (EST GS): found under the grommet when calculating wind correction angle
Distance (DST): calculated with POH and Plotter on the sectional
Estimated Time En-route (ETE): calculated with flight computer (arrow on GS, time read under distance)
Fuel Management:
Fuel Planning calculated with flight computer (arrow on GPH, read under time)
SETTO: Startup, Taxi and Takeoff lost fuel, usually 1.4 Gal
Total: Add everything up, this is a rough estimate for the flight, you will only use this section for planning on the ground
BLUE Section
Write aircraft tail number
List all checkpoints and associated distances
Write in any frequencies or IDs for route navigation
CH can be copied from the preflight log
Distance is measured off the sectional
GS (first or second line only): copy from preflight log
ETE: calculate same as preflight log
Fuel: calculate same as preflight log
In flight you will be filling in the other boxes as the flight progresses
ORANGE Section
Weight and balance as calculated normally
YELLOW Section
Fill out any weather information or notes you may have
Check NOTAMs for the route of flight
GREEN Section
Fill out the flight plan for flight service
All information is from the front of the navigation log
Filed before flight with the FSS so they can keep a track of you. If you do not close the flight plan 30 minutes after the proposed arrival time, SAR (search and rescue) procedures begin
BLUE Section
Fill out airspeeds, runway lengths, and altitudes
RED Section
VFR Cross-Country Checklist
Make sure all items are complete
Variation, Magnetic Versus True NorthEmbry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU) Flight Log Side 2 (click to enlarge)AIM, Pre-Flight Pilot ChecklistAIM, Pre-Flight Pilot Checklist
Inflight Guide:
After you've completed your flight log, consider the creation of an inflight guide to keep on your kneeboard during flight
This inflight guide is not intended to create an extra step in flight planning but instead to make your life easier when you're flying
Contents might include:
Print outs of the local airport information from the Chart Supplement U.S.
NOTAMS
etc.
Private Pilot (Airplane) Pilotage and Dead Reckoning Airman Certification Standards:
Objective: To determine whether the applicant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, risk management, and skills associated with pilotage and dead reckoning
Distractions, task prioritization, loss of situational awareness, or disorientation.
Private Pilot (Airplane) Pilot and Dead Reckoning Skills:
The applicant exhibits the skills to:
PA.VI.A.S1:
Prepare and use a flight log.
PA.VI.A.S2:
Navigate by pilotage.
PA.VI.A.S3:
Navigate by means of pre-computed headings, groundspeeds, elapsed time, and reference to landmarks or checkpoints.
PA.VI.A.S4:
Use the magnetic direction indicator in navigation, including turns to headings.
PA.VI.A.S5:
Verify position within three nautical miles of the flight-planned route.
PA.VI.A.S6:
Arrive at the en route checkpoints within five minutes of the initial or revised estimated time of arrival (ETA) and provide a destination estimate.
PA.VI.A.S7:
Maintain the appropriate altitude ±200 feet and heading ±15°.
Private Pilot (Airplane) Cross-Country Flight Planning Airman Certification Standards:
Objective: To determine whether the applicant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, risk management, and skills associated with ross-country flights and VFR flight planning
Private Pilot (Airplane) Cross-Country Flight Planning Skills:
The applicant exhibits the skills to:
PA.I.D.S1:
Prepare, present, and explain a cross-country flight plan assigned by the evaluator, including a risk analysis based on real-time weather, to the first fuel stop.
PA.I.D.S2:
Apply pertinent information from appropriate and current aeronautical charts, Chart Supplements; Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs) relative to airport, runway and taxiway closures; and other flight publications.
PA.I.D.S3:
Create a navigation plan and simulate filing a VFR flight plan.
PA.I.D.S4:
Recalculate fuel reserves based on a scenario provided by the evaluator.
Objective: To determine whether the applicant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, risk management, and skills associated with planning an IFR cross-country and filing an IFR flight plan
.
Note: Preparation, presentation, and explanation of a computer-generated flight plan is an acceptable option
Prepare, present, and explain a cross-country flight plan assigned by the evaluator including a risk analysis based on real time weather, which includes calculating time en route and fuel considering factors such as power settings, operating altitude, wind, fuel reserve requirements, and weight and balance requirements
IR.I.C.S2:
Recalculate fuel reserves based on a scenario provided by the evaluator
IR.I.C.S3:
Create a navigation plan and simulate filing an IFR flight plan
IR.I.C.S4:
Interpret departure, arrival, en route, and approach procedures with reference to appropriate and current charts
IR.I.C.S5:
Recognize simulated wing contamination due to airframe icing and demonstrate knowledge of the adverse effects of airframe icing during pre-takeoff, takeoff, cruise, and landing phases of flight as well as the corrective actions
IR.I.C.S6:
Apply pertinent information from appropriate and current aeronautical charts, Chart Supplements; Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs) relative to airport, runway and taxiway closures; and other flight publications
The NTSB determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The loss of engine power due to fuel exhaustion. Contributing to the accident was the lack of suitable terrain for the forced landing
Conclusion:
Amazon, Toiletry Bags
Planning is based on what we believe will occur
It may be incorrect and calculations/adjustments may need to be made in flight, but having a point from which to depart leads to educated decisions
The military calls this mission cross-check
When dead reckoning, you've done the math to determine timing, and so if you arrive at a checkpoint according to timing and direction but you don't see it, turn to your next heading and orient yourself
Information to aircraft performance at various altitudes can be found in Chapter 5 of the Pilot Information Manual
Navigation should always be done from the chart to the landmarks
This means look at your chart first and then at the ground for your landmark
If done the other way around you could find yourself staring at your map looking for a landmark that may not be charted
There is no correct cruise altitude, its a balance of terrain and obstacles, glide distances, winds, required VFR cruising altitudes and flight levels, and smoothness of air
Remember that documents may not reflect reality and when it comes to services available at an airport, they may not be available due to supplies or even destructive weather
It is advised that you call FBOs ahead of departures to ensure required services are available
Don't forget about what you want to do after you reach your destination
Chose an Fixed-Based Operator (FBO) ahead of landing and give them a call before you depart to ensure the desired services will be available, where you must go to receive them (i.e., fuel farms may not be at the FBO ramp), and any special parking instructions
When planning fuel stops per VFR/IFR requirements, consider FBO hours, services, etc.
When traveling cross-country, it is recommended to carry extra closes/toiletries (bingo bag) to mitigate comfort-based delays when making diversion decisions
Pilots should consider the implications of planning or filing/requesting direct legs
This includes terrain, navaid coverage, emergency options, etc.
Weather products like windy.com offer additional insight into aviation weather forecasts and observations