Flight Planning

Pilotage:

• Navigation with visual landmarks

Dead Reckoning:

• Dead recokoning is navigation by planning
• Position: A geographic point defined by coordinates
• Direction: An angular distance from a reference
  • Course: the aircrafts intended path
  • Heading: the direction the aircraft is pointed
    • Drift Angle: difference between the course and heading
  • Track: the aircrafts actual flight path over the ground (ground track marker)
    • When track = course you are flying exactly where you intend
• Time: Can be expressed in two ways, as the time of day or elapsed time
• Speed: The magnitude of the velocity of an aircraft

Determining a Route:

• While the most direct route is often preferred, deviations may be required due to airspace, terrain, availability of navaids/checkpoints, and weather, both winds and obscurations

Airspace to be Crossed:

• Review processes and procedures to cross special use, other, and various classifications of airspace

Choosing Checkpoints and/or Landmarks:

• Checkpoints allow you to follow the progress of your flight against your planning calculations
• Landmarks can be checkpoints but may also inform a pilot where they are in relation to checkpoints
• Considerations for selection of either are:
  • Are they unique enough to be identified?
  • Are they large enough to be found?
  • Are they small enough to be considered a "point?"
• Checkpoints should be appropriately 10 NM apart
• They may be points off the route which you can identify when abeam
• Use of tools such as satellite maps (Google, Bing, etc.) allow for you to preview checkpoints

• Types of Landmarks:

  • Positive Landmarks:

    • Can be positively identified and plotted as a point on a chart (i.e., mountains, large bodies of water, etc.)
    • You need not pass directly over a positive landmark for it to be useful to you
    • Be cautious of man-made landmarks as they may have changed, moved, or no longer exist
    • Hydrography (water features): [Figure 1]
      • Water features are depicted using two tones of blue, and are considered either "Open Water" or "Inland Water"
      • "Open Water," a lighter blue tone, shows the shoreline limitations of all coastal water features at the average (mean) high water levels for oceans and seas
      • Light blue also represents the connecting waters like bays, gulfs, sounds, fjords, and large estuaries
      • Exceptionally large lakes like the Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, and Lake Okeechobee, etc., are considered Open Water features
      • The Open Water tone extends inland as far as necessary to adjoin the darker blue "Inland Water" tones
      • All other bodies of water are marked as "Inland Water" in the darker blue tone

    • 

  • Linear Landmarks:

    • Can be positively identified but not specifically plotted because they extend for some distance
    • Features such as roads, railroads, coastlines, power lines and rivers may make good timing checkpoints if they are perpendicular to the course line and have other specific environmental particulars that identify your position
    • Rivers and power lines must be easy to find, either isolated or large so they are unmistakable with confirming landmarks so they can be confirmed
    • Railroads and major highways are almost always depicted on aeronautical charts

    • 

    • 

    • 

    • 

    • 

    • 

  • Uncertain Landmarks:

    • Features that a pilot suspects he can correlate with the chart, but they may not be fully reliable
    • Landmarks such as oil wells, and windmills may be repetitious
    • Objects may look much alike

Spotting Landmarks:

• Landmarks may be hard to spot, but there are some tricks you can use:
  • Offset to the landmark slightly to have better visibility out the side of the aircraft looking straight down
  • Use Google Earn to spot nearby landmarks to reference when near
  • Program the point into a GPS

Terrain and Obstacles:

• Although seemingly obvious, controlled flight into terrain is still a leading caues of aviation accidents
• Terrain and obstacles along the route of flight must be avoided either laterally or vertically
• Additionally, a brief study of the map should highlight hazards should the pilot chose to alter the route, in flight

• Antenna Towers:

  • Numerous skeletal structures such as radio and television antenna towers exceed 1,000' or 2,000' AGL
  • Most skeletal structures are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of reduced visibility
  • These wires can extend about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by at least 2,000 feet
  • Additionally, new towers may not be on your current chart because the information was not received prior to the printing of the chart

• Overhead Wires:

  • Transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways, natural flyways, such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently follow, such as highway, railroad tracks, etc.
  • Supporting structures such as guy wires exist here as well
  • Some locations identify these obstructions with unique sequencing flashing white strobe light systems
    • However, many power lines do not require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted
    • Many of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted
  • Pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant, especially in the case of seaplane and/or float-equipped aircraft

• Unmanned Balloons:

  • The majority of unmanned free balloons currently being operated have, extending below them, either a suspension device to which the payload or instrument package is attached or a trailing wire antenna, or both
    • You can expect restricted airspace established in the vicinity of these balloons
  • Good judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft should remain well clear of all unmanned free balloons and flight below them should be avoided at all times
  • Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility with which communication is established to assist FAA ATC facilities in identifying and flight following unmanned free balloons operating in the airspace

  • 

• There are other objects or structures that could adversely affect your flight, such as construction cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc.
  • This is especially true when operating below 500' AGL and morseo below 200' AGL
• Also, many of these structures do not meet charting requirements or may not yet be charted because of the charting cycle
• Some structures do not require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA recommended it
• Notice to Air Missions (NOTAMs) will typically be published for any known unlit structures, but pilot vigilance is imperative in case the FAA has not yet been notified of outages

Glide Distance:

• The glide distance of the airplane is based on the glide ratio, a performance number to provide an idea of the options available in an engine out
• More than airports, suitable roads and fields options for emergency landings increases with increased altitude
• Additionally, regulatory requirements, such as those found in FAR 91.205, specify supplemental survival equipment depending on glide-distance from shore if the flight is conducted for hire
  • Even further, FAR 91.509 further specifies supplemental survival equipment based on distance from shore

Effects of Winds:

• Winds are an important planning consideration both during terminal (surface winds) and cruise (winds aloft) environment

• Effects of Surface Winds:

  • Surface winds are most commonly used for determining an optimal runway in the terminal area
  • Similarly, surface winds provide insight into optimal landing surfaces in an emergency along a route of flight

• Effects of Winds at Cruise:

  • Wind direction and intensity at various cruise altitudes are an important consideration to determine cruise performance
  • Winds aloft are the most direct means to plan for winds at cruise altitudes along the route of flight
  • Headwinds increase flight time and therefore fuel burn, reducing range, while tailwinds do just the opposite
  • Further, headwinds require for power (increased fuel burn) and tailwinds decrease power requirements (decreased fuel burn)

VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels:

• 

• VFR Cruising Altitudes [Figure 1] are established to reduce mid-air collisions by establishing cruise altitudes governed by FAR 91.159 which states:
  • Except while holding in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less (see VFR Holding), or while turning, each person operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising flight more than 3,000 feet above the surface shall maintain the appropriate altitude or flight level prescribed below, unless otherwise authorized by ATC:
    • When operating below 18,000 feet MSL and:
      • On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude + 500 feet (such as 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500); or
      • On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude + 500 feet (such as 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500)
    • When operating above 18,000 feet MSL, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC
  • Account for changes in direction of flight along a flight plan and corresponding altitude changes to meet the standard

• 

• ATC may give other restrictions if you are under their control, say with flight following or when within controlled airspace
• IFR Cruising Altitudes can be found by referencing FAR 91.179

• Memory Aids:

  • The 13 Colonies (an odd number) were on the east coast of the U.S.
  • Eastern states have odd shapes
  • NEODD SWEVEN: North East Odd, South West Even

Smooth of Rough Air:

Wind Correction Angle:

• Find your winds aloft through an official weather source
• Plot the winds on your E6B Flight Computer:
  • Place the wind direction under the "True Index" arrow
  • Using a reference line on the E6B scale, measure up and plot the velocity
• Rotate the compass rose until your True Course is under the True Index pointer
• Move the entire compass until the plot is over your True Airspeed
• Note which side of the True Index the plot falls, and by how much based on the scale provided
  • This is your wind correction angle
  • If it is located on the left of the line, it must be subtracted from the True Course
  • If it is located on the right of the line, it must be added to the True Course

True Courses and Headings:

• True north is the basis by which true courses are measured and true headings are calculated against

• True North Defined:

  • True north is the direction along the earth's surface towards the geographic North Pole
  • It is the northerly point furthest from the equator (90°N)
  • True headings can therefore be measured on most aeronautical maps, including sectionals, by reference to true north

• Measuring True Course:

  1. Draw a straight line between two points (airports, checkpoints, etc.) on a sectional chart
  2. Next find the lines of longitude on a map
  3. Grab your plotter and place the reference hole over the intersection of the line of longitude
  4. Rotate the plotter so that it is parallel to the line you drew
  5. Where the line of longitude intersects the compass rose on the plotter, determine your true course
     • If there is more than one number, chose the number most appropriate for your direction of flight

• Calculating True Heading:

  • First, determine your wind correction angle
  • Finally, apply the formula:
    • True Heading = True Course (-left/+right) WCA

Magnetic Courses and Headings:

• As with true north, magnetic north is the basis by which magnetic courses and magnetic headings are calculated against

• Magnetic North Defined:

  • Magnetic north is the direction along the earth's surface which points toward the magnetic north pole
  • Magnetic compasses point to this location and therefore it is magnetic headings that are flown
  • The magnetic north pole is a shifting point which is not coincident with the "top" of the earth as defined by latitude and longitude

• Calculating Magnetic Course:

  • Magnetic heading will usually require a correction based on the variation or:
    • The angular difference between true north and magnetic north from any given position on the earth's surface (represented by isogonic lines)
    • Isogonic lines are points of equal variation, represented in degrees east or west
  • Deviations is usually pulled off a sectional chart however, other sources such as NOAA can provide this information
  • The memory aide "east is least (minus), west is best (plus)" is often used to remember how to apply east and west variations
  • Magnetic Course (MC) = True Course (TC) - East Variation
  • Magnetic Course (MC) = True Course (TC) + West Variation

• Calculating Magnetic Heading:

  • All aircraft will have a deviation factor that must be applied
  • Deviation is read off the compass card in the aircraft, and must be added or subtracted to the magnetic course as appropriate

Time Calculations:

• If you need to travel 10 NM, and you have a ground speed of 100 knots, how long will it take?
  • 10 NM = Time (hours) x 100
  • 10/100 = Time
  • Time = 0.1
  • Multiply 0.1 by 60 (minutes in an hour) and you'll get 6, for 6 minutes to travel that distance at that ground speed
• As wind gets factored in, even if a round trip with consistent winds, the time to fly becomes longer - headwinds/tailwinds will not cancel out (see: Is time lost fighting a headwind gained back when riding a tailwind?)
  • Suppose D = distance, TT = total time, AS = air speed, WS = wind speed
  • Then the equation for a direct headwind and tail wind is TT = D/(AS - WS) + D/(AS + WS) = 150/(100 - 50) + 150/(100 + 50) = 150/50 + 150/150 = 450/150 + 150/150 = 600/150 = 4
  • With WS = 0 the equation becomes TT = 150/100 + 150/100 = 300/100 = 3
• In total, adding each leg, accounting for climb/descent, produces the time enroute

• Zulu Time Converstions:

  • Zulu time, also referred to a Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the standard time for all of aviation
  • Many website and applications will help pilots calculate these times, which become important when trying to normalize timezones and input departure and arrival times when filing a flight plan
  • To calculate, determine timezone correction and add (western hemisphere) or subtract (eastern hemisphere) to/from zulu time

Distance Calculations:

• Distance is rate time time
• You will travel 10% of speed in 6 minutes
• If you are traveling at 100 knots ground speed for 6 minutes, how far will you travel?
  • Distance = 0.1 (see above) x 100
  • Distance = 10 NM
• Using an E6B:
  • Point to ground speed with the arrow
  • Find time and read above
  • For times under 3 minutes, the small arrow may need to be utilized