Flight control systems allow the pilot to govern the inputs necessary to manipulate and control the aircraft
In the case of many conventional airplanes, the primary flight controls utilize hinged, trailing edge surfaces called elevators for pitch, ailerons for roll, and the rudder for yaw
Secondary flight controls are used in conjunction with primary flight controls to refine aircraft manipulations further
Nothing lasts forever, and unfortunately, pilots may be required to confront flight control malfunctions, which can produce varying degrees of danger to control of the aircraft
Rudder pedals, located at the pilot's feet, control the aircraft's rudder
The rudder pedals may also control aircraft steering on the ground, either directly through linkages or indirectly, as with castering designs
Rudders may have yaw dampeners, which reduce sensitivity and ease control for the pilot
Primary Flight Controls:
Deflection of trailing edge control surfaces, such as the aileron, alters both lift and drag
Ailerons:
Cessna-172N Aileron System
Ailerons (French for "little wing") are control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wings, near the wingtip, that control the aircraft about its longitudinal axis, allowing the aircraft to "roll" or "bank" [Figure 1]
They extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll
This action results in the airplane turning toward the roll/bank
With aileron deflection, there is an asymmetrical lift (rolling moment) about the longitudinal axis and drag (adverse yaw)
Some ailerons on high-performance aircraft like the Extra 300 have spades that enhance aileron controllability
Rudder:
Cessna-172N Rudder System
Rudders control the direction (left or right) of "yaw" about an airplane's vertical axis [Figure 2]
Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface that, in this case, is the vertical stabilizer or fin
Rudders are like elevators, except that they swing in a different plane (side to side instead of up and down)
They are not intended to turn the airplane, as is often erroneously believed
In practice, coordinated use of both the ailerons and rudder turns an aircraft, the ailerons imparting roll with the rudder maintaining coordination
This relationship is critical in maintaining coordination or creating a slip
Improperly ruddered turns at low speed can precipitate a spin
The pilot controls rudders with his/her feet through a system of cables and pulleys:
"Step" on the right rudder pedal: the rudder moves right, creating a "yaw" to the right
"Step" on the left rudder pedal: the rudder moves left, creating a "yaw" to the left
Water Rudders:
Water rudders are similar to boat rudders that can assist in steering an aircraft in the water when on floats
Elevators/Stabilators:
Cessna-172N Elevator System
Elevators are attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer [Figure 3]
A stabilator combines the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator (the entire surface moves)
The elevator/stabilator pitches the aircraft up and down by deflecting the surface, creating a load on the tail
The elevators control the angle of attack of the wings
The yoke manipulates the airfoil through a system of cables and pulleys:
Yoke "pulls" back: elevator raises, creating downward lift, raising the nose, increasing the wing's angle of attack
Yoke "pushes" forward: elevator lowers, creating upward lift, lowering the nose, decreasing the wing's angle of attack
Pitch behavior depends on the aircraft's flap type, wing position, and horizontal tail location
Flap deflection produces a nose-down pitching moment; however, the change in tail load from the down-wash deflected by the flaps over the horizontal tail significantly influences the degree of pitching the moment
Flap deflection of up to 15° produces lift with minimal drag
Deflection beyond 15° produces a large increase in drag
The drag produced from flap deflection is called parasite drag and is proportional to the square of the speed
Also, deflection beyond 15° produces a significant nose-up pitching moment in most high-wing airplanes because the resulting down-wash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail
Trailing-Edge Flaps:
Airplane Flying Handbook, Four Basic Types of Flaps
Flap operation enhances landings and takeoff performance, during which the airplane is near the ground where the margin for error is small [Figure 4]
When used for takeoff, lower flap settings (typically less than 15°) increase lift without significantly increasing drag
When used for landing, higher flap settings increase lift but also drag and, therefore, decrease approach speed and enable steeper approach paths
Since the recommendations given in the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) reflect the airplane and the flap design combination, the pilot must relate the manufacturer's recommendation to the aerodynamic effects of flaps
With this information, the pilot must decide the degree of flap deflection and time of deflection based on runway and approach conditions relative to the wind conditions
The time of flap extension and degree of deflection are related and affect the stability of an approach
Large flap deflections at one single point in the landing pattern produce large lift changes that require significant pitch and power changes to maintain airspeed and glide slope
Incremental deflection of flaps on downwind, base, and final approach allows smaller adjustment of pitch and power compared to extension of full flaps all at one time
The tendency to balloon up with initial flap deflection is because of lift increase, but the nose-down pitching moment tends to offset the balloon
A soft- or short-field landing requires minimal speed at touchdown
The flap deflection that results in minimal ground speed, therefore, should be used
If obstacle clearance is a factor, flap deflection assists in steepening the angle of approach
Note that the flap setting that gives the minimal speed at touchdown does not necessarily give the steepest angle of approach; however, maximum flap extension gives the steepest angle of approach and minimum speed at touchdown
Maximum flap extension, particularly beyond 30 to 35°, results in a large amount of drag, requiring higher power settings than used with partial flaps
Because of the steep approach angle combined with the power to offset drag, the flare with full flaps becomes critical
The drag produces a high sink rate, controlled with power, yet failure to reduce power at a rate so that the power is idle at touchdown allows the airplane to float down the runway
A reduction in power too early results in a hard landing
Crosswind Considerations:
Crosswind component must be considered with the degree of flap extension because the deflected flap presents a surface area for the wind to act on
In a crosswind, the "flapped" wing on the upwind side is more affected than the downwind wing
Crabbing can, to a slight extent, reduce the impacts as the airplane is more aligned with the wind in a crab
When using a wing-low approach, however, the lowered wing partially blankets the upwind flap, but the wing's dihedral combined with the flap and wind make lateral control more difficult
Lateral control becomes more complex as the flap extension reaches the maximum, and the crosswind becomes perpendicular to the runway
Crosswind effects on the "flapped" wing become more pronounced as the airplane comes closer to the ground
The wing, flap, and ground form a "container" filled with air by the crosswind
With the wind striking the deflected flap and fuselage side and with the flap located behind the main gear, the upwind wing will tend to rise, and the airplane will tend to turn into the wind
Proper control position, therefore, is essential for maintaining runway alignment
Also, it may be necessary to retract the flaps upon positive ground contact
The go-around is another factor to consider when deciding the degree of flap deflection and where in the landing pattern to extend flaps
Because of the nose-down pitching moment produced with flap extension, pilots use trim to offset this pitching moment
Application of full power in the go-around increases the airflow over the "flapped" wing
Additional airflow produces additional lift, causing the nose to pitch up
The pitch-up tendency does not diminish completely with flap retraction because of the trim setting
Expedient retraction of flaps is desirable to eliminate drag, thereby allowing a rapid increase in airspeed; however, flap retraction also decreases lift so that the airplane sinks rapidly
The degree of flap deflection combined with the design configuration of the horizontal tail relative to the wing requires that the pilot carefully monitor pitch and airspeed, carefully control flap retraction to minimize altitude loss, and properly use the rudder for coordination
Considering these factors, the pilot should extend the same degree of deflection at the same point in the landing pattern
Consistency requires pilots to fly a disciplined traffic pattern
Therefore, the pilot can have a pre-planned go-around sequence based on the airplane's position in the landing pattern
There is no single formula to determine the degree of flap deflection to be used on landing because a landing involves variables that are dependent on each other
Under no circumstances should flap limitations in the AFM/POH be exceeded for takeoff
Types of Trailing-Edge Flaps:
Plain Flaps:
Plain flaps are the most common but least efficient flap system [Figure 4]
Attached on a hinged pivot, which allows the flap to move downward
The structure and function are comparable to the other control surfaces-ailerons, rudder, and elevator
When extended, it increases the chord line, angle of attack, and camber of the wing, increasing both lift and drag
It is important to remember that control surfaces are nothing more than plain flaps themselves
Split Flap:
Similar to the plain flap but more complex [Figure 4]
It is only the lower or underside portion of the wing
The deflection of the flap leaves the trailing edge of the wing undisturbed
Split flaps create greater lift than hinge flaps while also having the least pitching moment of conventional designs; however, the design significantly increases drag, requiring additional power
Split flaps are, therefore, most advantageous for landing, but the partially deflected hinge flaps have the advantage in takeoff
The split flap has significant drag at small deflections, whereas the hinge flap does not because airflow remains "attached" to the flap
Slotted Flap:
The slotted flap has greater lift than the hinge flap but less than the split flap; but, because of a higher lift-drag ratio, it gives better takeoff and climb performance [Figure 4]
Small deflections of the slotted flap give a higher drag than the hinge flap but less than the split, ideal for takeoff
A slotted flap will produce proportionally more lift than drag
Its design allows high-pressure air below the wing to be directed through a slot to flow over the flap's upper surface, delaying the airflow separation at higher angles of attack
This design lowers the stall speed significantly
Fowler Flap:
Most efficient design [Figure 4]
Moves backward on the first part of the extension, increasing lift with little drag; also utilizes a slotted design, resulting in lower stall speeds and increased wing area
Fowler flaps increase the angle of attack, camber, and wing area the most, increasing lift with comparatively less increase in drag, causing the greatest change in pitching (down) moment
Provides the greatest increase in lift coefficient with the least change in drag
This flap can be multi-slotted, making it the most complex of the trailing edge systems
Drag characteristics at small deflections are much like the slotted flap
Because of structural complexity and difficulty in sealing the slots, Fowler flaps are most common on larger airplanes
Blown Flap:
An aircraft with wing-mounted propellers exhibits a blown flap effect
Provides extra airflow for wings by blowing air over the surfaces
Prevents boundary layer from stagnating, improving lift
At low speeds, this system can "fool" the airplane into thinking it is flying faster
Blown flaps can improve lift by 2 or 3 times; however, the bleed air off the engine causes a decrease in thrust for phases of flight such as take off
Airplane Flying Handbook, Four Basic Types of Flaps
Aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings
When deployed, they allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack, so it can fly slower or take off and land over a shorter distance
Usually used while landing or performing maneuvers, which take the aircraft close to the stall but are usually retracted in normal flight to minimize drag
Slats work by increasing the camber of the wing and also by opening a small gap (the slot) between the slat and the wing leading edge, allowing a small amount of high-pressure air from the lower surface to reach the upper surface, where it helps postpone the stall
The chord of the slat is typically only a few percent of the wing chord
They may extend over the outer third of the wing or may cover the entire leading edge
The slat has a counterpart found in the wings of some birds, the Alula, a feather or group of feathers which the bird can extend under the control of its "thumb"
Automatic Slats:
The slat lies flush with the wing's leading edge until reduced aerodynamic forces allow it to extend by way of springs when needed
This type is typical on light aircraft
Fixed Slats:
Fixed slats are just that, installed as permanently extended
The fixed slat design is rarely used, except on particular low-speed aircraft (referred to as slots)
Powered Slats:
The pilot can control the slat extension
Powered slats are common on airliners
Aircraft Leading Edge Flaps/Slats
Control Surface Tabs:
Tabs are small, adjustable aerodynamic devices on the trailing edge of the control surface
These movable surfaces reduce pressure on the controls
Trim controls a neutral point, like balancing the aircraft on a point with unsymmetrical weights
Balancing is done either by trim tabs (small movable surfaces on the control surface) or by moving the neutral position of the entire control surface altogether
Control surface tabs are on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator
Trim Tabs:
Cessna-172N Elevator Trim System
The force of the airflow striking the tab causes the main control surface to deflect to a position that corrects the unbalanced condition of the aircraft
An aircraft properly trimmed will, when disturbed, try to return to its previous state due to aircraft stability
Trimming is a constant task required after any power setting, airspeed, altitude, or configuration change
Proper trimming decreases pilot workload, which is especially important for instrument flying
System of cables and pulleys control the trim tabs
Trim tab adjusted up: trim tab lowers, creating positive lift, lowering the nose
This movement is very slight
Trim tab adjusted down: trim tab raises, creating positive lift, raising the nose
Servo tabs are similar to trim tabs in that they are small secondary controls that help reduce pilot workload by reducing forces [Figure 6]
The defining difference, however, is that these tabs operate automatically, independent of the pilot
Servo Tab Designs:
Anti-Servo Tabs:
Anti-servo tabs, also called anti-balance tabs, are tabs that move in the same direction as the control surface
Servo Tab:
Tabs that move in the opposite direction as the control surface
Additional Aerodynamic Surfaces:
Although not specifically "controlled" by the pilot, some aircraft have additional surfaces to increase aircraft stability
Dorsal Fin:
The Dorsal Fin is an extension on a control surface, be it vertical or horizontal, which increases the surface area of a surface
Additionally, this helps provide turbulent air to increase other control surface's effectiveness
Ventral Fin:
Ventral fins are additional, usually fixed, vertical stabilizers found under the tail of an aircraft
According to NASA, ventral fins, although primarily used to augment the vertical fin, which may be in the wake of the wing at high angles of attack, are also beneficial in decreasing the lateral stability and increasing the directional stability to reduce the effects of Dutch roll
Flight Control Preflight Checks:
Amazon, Gust Locks
Some aircraft may have gust locks that must be removed before manipulating the controls or risk damage [Figure 7]
Once removed, ensure the flight controls are free and correct
Move the controls in a box pattern to ensure nothing prevents full range of motion while simultaneously visually inspecting for appropriate movements (i.e., cables are attached correctly)
Pilots can remember how ailerons deflect by using their thumbs
While holding the yoke, point the thumbs straight up; if turning left, the thumbs are then pointing left, and the left aileron will rise while the right aileron drops
An asymmetric "split" flap situation is one in which one flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in position
A split-flap condition is not to be confused with split-flap designs
Split-flap conditions can result in a dramatic rolling moment toward the least deflected flap
Pilots can counter any rolling moments with opposite aileron
Opposite rudder will be required to overcome the adverse yaw caused by the additional drag on the wing with the extended flap
The aircraft is now in a cross-controlled situation
To solve this problem, the pilot may attempt to raise the flaps again
Weigh the cost of retracting the flaps, which could fix the situation or could cause more damage
Consider flying faster approaches
With one wing that does not have flaps, it will stall earlier, requiring a higher-than-normal approach speed
Pilots may need up to full aileron deflection to maintain a wings-level attitude, especially at the reduced airspeed necessary for approach and landing
The pilot should not risk an asymmetric stall and subsequent loss of control by flaring excessively
Rather, the airplane should be flown onto the runway so that the touchdown occurs at an airspeed consistent with a safe margin above flaps-up stall speed
The pilot should not attempt to land with a crosswind from the side of the deployed flap because the additional roll control required to counteract the crosswind may not be available
Some aircraft designs include physically interconnected flaps to prevent flap asymmetry
Pilots may choose not to extend flaps in a turn to avoid risks associated with an asymmetric flap situation while already in a turn
Runaway Trim:
Runaway trim is a condition in which an electric trim motor has become stuck, causing the trim to move when uncommanded
Runaway trim can result in a serious flight control problem where the pilot has to muscle the controls to try and maintain a flyable aircraft
To solve this problem, the pilot should pull the circuit breaker for the trim motor
Not having an understanding or knowing where to reference the circuit breaker diagram quickly can make this easy task difficult
Open Doors/Hatches:
If doors/hatches open in flight, the effect is usually just psychological with increased noise and wind, but it usually does not impact handling and is not an emergency
Sometimes, hatches that store cargo could allow that cargo to escape and bind on control surfaces - which is an absolute emergency
Common Training Aircraft Control Characteristics:
Cessna-172:
Single-slot type wing flaps
Adjusted 10° to 20° to 30° extended
Protected by a 10-ampere circuit breaker
The flap actuator located in the right wing
If the actuator cannot function, neither flap will deploy
Piper Arrow:
Plain flap system
Adjusted 10° to 25° to 40° extended and locked
Pulling the lever to full extension provides an additional about 5°, but the lever will not lock
Flaps extend and retract manually
Private Pilot (Airplane) Airman Certification Standards Related to Flight Control Systems:
Private Pilot (Airplane) Operation of Aircraft Systems Airman Certification Standards:
Objective: To determine the applicant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, risk management, and skills associated with safe operation of systems on the airplane provided for the flight test.
Private Pilot (Airplane) Operation of Aircraft Systems Risk Management:
The applicant is able to identify, assess, and mitigate risk associated with:
PA.I.G.R1:
Detection of system malfunctions or failures
PA.I.G.R2:
Management of a system failure
PA.I.G.R3:
Monitoring and management of automated systems
Private Pilot (Airplane) Operation of Aircraft Systems Skills:
The applicant exhibits the skill to:
PA.I.G.S1:
Operate at least three of the systems listed in K1a through K1l appropriately
PA.I.G.S2:
Complete the appropriate checklist(s)
Commercial Pilot (Airplane) Flight Control Systems Related Airman Certification Standards:
Commercial Pilot (Airplane) Operation of Systems Airman Certification Standards:
Objective: To determine the applicant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, risk management, and skills associated with safe operation of systems on the airplane provided for the flight test
Note: If K1 is selected, the evaluator must assess the applicant's knowledge of at least three sub-elements
