Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs)

Pilot Briefing and Procedure Notes Section:

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• The pilot briefing and procedure notes are the starting place for any approach to be flown, and are directly related to the conduct of the approach brief.

• Instrument Approach Chart Issuing Authority:

  • The issuing authority is labeled at the top center of the approach plate:
    • Civil procedures are defined with "FAA" in parenthesis; e.g., (FAA). [Figure 2]
    • DOD procedures are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable military service in parenthesis; e.g., (USAF), (USN), (USA). [Figure 3]
      • If there are military procedures published at a civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 must use the civil procedure(s).
  • 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military airports, requires civil pilots flying into or out of military airports to comply with the IAPs and takeoff and landing minimums prescribed by the authority having jurisdiction at those airports.
  • Unless an emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military airports normally require prior authorization, commonly referred to as "Prior Permission Required" or "PPR."
  • Information on obtaining a PPR for a particular military airport can be found in the Chart Supplement U.S. [Figure 4]
    • Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using DOD instrument approach procedures when approved by the air traffic controller

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• Navigation Equipment Requirements:

  • The navigation equipment required to join and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated by the title of the procedure and notes on the chart

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    • Straight-in IAPs are identified by the navigational system providing the final approach guidance (i.e., VOR) and the runway to which the approach is aligned (i.e., 16) [Figure 5]

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    • Circling only approaches are identified by the navigational system providing final approach guidance (i.e. VOR) and a letter (i.e. A) [Figure 6]

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    • More than one navigational system separated by a slash indicates that more than one type of equipment must be used to execute the final approach [Figure 7]

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    • More than one navigational system separated by the word "or" indicates either type of equipment may be used to execute the final approach [Figure 8]

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    • Pilots should review the procedure's notes, planview annotations, and PBN/equipment requirements boxes to determine the capability needed to accomplish the procedure.
  • The name of an instrument approach, as published, is used to identify the approach.
    • The controller will use the name of the approach as published, but must advise the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued of any inoperative or unreliable approach aid component, except when the title of the published approach procedures otherwise allows, for example, "ILS or LOC."
  • Except when being radar vectored to the final approach course, when cleared for a specifically prescribed IAP; i.e., "cleared ILS runway one niner approach" or when "cleared approach," i.e., execution of any procedure prescribed for the airport, pilots must execute the entire procedure commencing at an IAF or an associated feeder route as described on the IAP chart unless an appropriate new or revised ATC clearance is received, or the IFR flight plan is canceled.
  • Pilots planning flights to locations which are private airfields or which have instrument approach procedures based on private navigation aids should obtain approval from the owner.
    • In addition, the pilot must be authorized by the FAA to fly special instrument approach procedures associated with private navigation aids.
    • Private owners are responsible for the NAVAID's useability.
    • Air traffic controllers are not required to question pilots to determine if they have permission to land at a private airfield or to use procedures based on privately owned navigation aids, and they may not know the status of the navigation aid.
    • Controllers presume a pilot has obtained approval from the owner and the FAA for use of special instrument approach procedures and is aware of any details of the procedure if an IFR flight plan was filed to that airport.
  • Pilots should not rely on radar to identify a fix unless the fix is indicated as "RADAR" on the IAP. Pilots may request radar identification of an OM, but the controller may not be able to provide the service due either to workload or not having the fix on the video map

• Pilot Briefing Contents:

  • Thematic approach numbers are provided, including the final approach course, runway landing distance, touchdown zone elevation and airport elevation.
  • Additionally, frequencies in the order pilots would expect to use them are provided.
    • The tower frequency box is always bolded.

• Procedure Notes:

  • Alternate Considerations:

    • If the aircraft is a valid alternate, an "A"
      • However, even with an "A," the notes may stipulate the approach not being available at night (as defined as FAR 1.1).
    • If the approach is not a valid alternate, it will be labeled "A NA."
      • This is usually means the approach cannot be guaranteed and therefore not relied upon as an alternate.

  • Approach Lighting:

    • Approach lighting for the primary runway serviced is listed.

  • Published Temperature Limitations:

    • There are currently two temperature limitations that may be published in the notes box of the middle briefing strip on an instrument approach procedure (IAP):
      • A temperature range limitation associated with the use of baro-VNAV that may be published on a United States PBN IAP titled RNAV (GPS) or RNAV (RNP); and/or
      • A Cold Temperature Airport (CTA) limitation designated by a snowflake ICON and temperature in Celsius (C) that is published on every IAP for the airfield

Plan View:

• The plan view gives a bird's-eye view of the path the pilot is to fly according to the procedure.
• In some cases, other types of navigation systems, including radar, may be required to execute different portions of the approach or to navigate to the IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB in the missed approach, or radar required to join the procedure or identify a fix).
  • When the procedure requires radar or other equipment for entry from the en-route environment, the plan view of the approach chart will include a note such as RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED.
  • When the procedure requires radar or other equipment for portions outside the final approach segment—including the missed approach—the notes box in the pilot briefing section of the approach chart will include a note such as RADAR REQUIRED or DME REQUIRED.
    • Notes are not charted when VOR is required outside the final approach segment
  • Pilots should ensure the aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) to execute the approach, including the missed approach.
  • Some military (i.e., U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy) IAPs have these "additional equipment required" notes charted only in the plan view of the approach procedure and do not conform to the same application standards used by the FAA.
• The Cat II and Cat III designations differentiate between multiple ILSs to the same runway, unless there are multiple of the same type.
• The FAA has initiated a program to provide a new notation for LOC approaches when charted on an ILS approach requiring other navigational aids to fly the final approach course.
  • The LOC minimums will be annotated with the NAVAID required (e.g., "DME Required" or "RADAR Required").
  • During the transition period, ILS approaches will still exist without the annotation.
• Many ILS approaches having minima based on RVR are eligible for a landing minimum of RVR 1800. Some of these approaches are to runways that have touchdown zones and centerline lights. For many runways without touchdown and centerline lights, it is still possible to allow a landing with a minimum RVR of 1800. For these runways, the normal ILS minimum of RVR 2400 can be annotated with a single or double asterisk or the dagger symbol "†"; for example, "** 696/24 200 (200/1/2)." A note is included on the chart stating "**RVR 1800 authorized with use of FD or AP or HUD to DA." The pilot must use the flight director, or an autopilot with an approved approach coupler, or a heads-up display to the decision altitude or to the initiation of a missed approach. In the interest of safety, single-pilot operators should not fly approaches to 1800 RVR minimums on runways without touchdown and centerline lights using only a flight director, unless accompanied by an autopilot with an approach coupler.
• The naming of multiple approaches of the same type to the same runway is also changing. Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the end of the alphabet and working backwards for subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased out and replaced with the new designation. The Cat II and Cat III designations are used to differentiate between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless there are multiples of the same type
• RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV, LP, LNAV/VNAV and LPV lines of minima using WAAS and RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV and LNAV/VNAV lines of minima using GPS are charted as RNAV (GPS) RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV (GPS) RWY 21)
• Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Box. As charts are updated, a procedure's PBN requirements and conventional equipment requirements will be prominently displayed in separate, standardized notes boxes. For procedures with PBN elements, the PBN box will contain the procedure's navigation specification(s); and, if required: specific sensors or infrastructure needed for the navigation solution, any additional or advanced functional requirements, the minimum Required Navigation Performance (RNP) value, and any amplifying remarks. Items listed in this PBN box are REQUIRED for the procedure's PBN elements. For example, an ILS with an RNAV missed approach would require a specific capability to fly the missed approach portion of the procedure. That required capability will be listed in the PBN box. The separate Equipment Requirements box will list ground-based equipment requirements. On procedures with both PBN elements and equipment requirements, the PBN requirements box will be listed first. The publication of these notes will continue incrementally until all charts have been amended to comply with the new standard

• Minimum Safe Altitude:

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  • Minimum Safe/Sector Altitudes (MSAs) are published for emergency use on IAP charts or Departure Procedure (DPs) graphic charts.
  • MSAs provide 1,000 feet of clearance over all obstacles but do not necessarily ensure acceptable navigation signal coverage (as with OROCAs).
  • The MSA depiction on the plan view of an approach chart or on a DP graphic chart includes the identifier of the MSA center point, the applicable MSA radius, a depiction of the sector(s), and the minimum altitudes above mean sea level that provide obstacle clearance. [Figure 9]
  • For conventional navigation systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary omnidirectional facility on which the IAP or DP graphic chart is predicated, but may be based on the airport reference point (ARP) if no suitable facility is available.
  • For RNAV approaches or DP graphic charts, the MSA is based on an RNAV waypoint
  • MSAs normally have a 25 NM radius; however, for conventional navigation systems, this radius may be expanded to 30 NM if necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces
  • A single-sector altitude is normally established; however, when the MSA is based on a facility, and it is necessary to obtain relief from obstacles, an MSA with up to four sectors may be established.

Profile View:

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• The profile view provides pilots with the approach procedure, the sequential missed approach procedure, and the approach minimums.

• Profile View Approach Procedure:

  • The profile view provides much of the same information in the plan view, with the addition of vertical guidance.
  • Course headings are provided for both inbound and outbound.
  • Vertical lines intersect the course, labeled by the fix they represent and their distance from the runway or NAVAID.
  • Vertical guidance is published as minimum, maximum, mandatory, and recommended altitudes. [Figure 10]
    • Minimum altitudes are underscored.
      • Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value.
    • Maximum altitudes are overscored.
      • Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or below the depicted value.
    • Mandatory altitudes are both underscored and overscored.
      • Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value.
    • Recommended altitudes are neither overscored nor underscored.
      • These altitudes are depicted for descent planning.
  • Pilots must adhere to prescribed altitudes because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis for vertical separation of aircraft by ATC.
    • When a depicted altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude becomes mandatory as defined above.

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  • The ILS glide slope is intended to be intercepted at the published glide slope intercept altitude.
    • This point marks the Precise Final Approach Fix (PFAF) and is depicted by the "lightning bolt" symbol on U.S. Government charts.
    • Intercepting the glide slope at this altitude marks the beginning of the final approach segment and ensures required obstacle clearance during descent from the glide slope intercept altitude to the lowest published decision altitude for the approach.
    • If the pilot chooses to track the glide slope before the glide slope interception altitude, they remain responsible for complying with published altitudes for any preceding step-down fixes encountered during the subsequent descent.
  • Approaches used for simultaneous (parallel) independent and simultaneous close parallel operations procedurally require descending on the glide-slope from the altitude at which the approach clearance is issued.
    • For simultaneous close parallel (PRM) approaches, the Attention All Users Page (AAUP) may publish a note which indicates that descending on the glide-slope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions.
    • However, if no such note is published, and for simultaneous independent approaches (4300 and greater runway separation) where an AAUP is not published, pilots are cautioned to monitor their descent on the glide-slope/path outside of the PFAF to ensure compliance with published crossing restrictions during simultaneous operations.
  • When parallel approach courses are less than 2500 feet apart and reduced in-trail spacing is authorized for simultaneous dependent operations, a chart note will indicate that simultaneous operations require use of vertical guidance and that the pilot should maintain last assigned altitude until established on glide slope. These approaches procedurally require utilization of the ILS glide slope for wake turbulence mitigation. Pilots should not confuse these simultaneous dependent operations with (SOIA) simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches, where PRM appears in the approach title
  • Altitude restrictions depicted at stepdown fixes within the final approach segment are applicable only when flying a Non-Precision Approach to a straight-in or circling line of minima identified as a MDA(H). These altitude restrictions may be annotated with a note "LOC only" or "LNAV only." Stepdown fix altitude restrictions within the final approach segment do not apply to pilots using Precision Approach (ILS) or Approach with Vertical Guidance (LPV, LNAV/VNAV) lines of minima identified as a DA(H), since obstacle clearance on these approaches is based on the aircraft following the applicable vertical guidance. Pilots are responsible for adherence to stepdown fix altitude restrictions when outside the final approach segment (i.e., initial or intermediate segment), regardless of which type of procedure the pilot is flying [Figure 15]

• Visual Descent Point:

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  • The Visual Descent Point, or VDP, identified by the symbol (V), is a point on the final approach course of a non-precision straight-in approach procedure from which a stabilized visual descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be made with the runway environment in sight. [Figure 1]
    • While VDPs are published on most RNAV IAPs, VDPs only apply to aircraft utilizing LP or LNAV minima, not LPV or LNAV/VNAV minimums (i.e., it applies to approaches without vertical guidance, hence non-precision).
  • The pilot should not descend below the MDA before reaching the VDP.
  • The VDP will be identified by DME or RNAV along-track distance to the MAP.
    • The VDP distance is based on the lowest MDA published on the IAP and harmonized with the angle of the visual glide slope indicator (VGSI) (if installed) or the procedure VDA (if no VGSI is installed).
  • A VDP is not published under certain circumstances which may result in a destabilized descent between the MDA and the runway touchdown point.
    • Circumstances include an obstacle penetrating the visual surface between the MDA and runway threshold, lack of distance measuring capability, or the procedure design prevents a VDP to be identified.
  • Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had been provided.

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• Profile View Sequential Missed Approach Procedure:

  • To make missed approach guidance more readily understood, a method has been developed to display missed approach guidance in the profile view through the sequential use of quick reference icons.
  • Due to limited space in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be shown.
    • The icons may not provide representation of the entire missed approach procedure.
  • The entire set of textual missed approach instructions are provided in the pilot briefing section. [Figure 14]

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Approach Minimums:

• Approach minimums are based on the local altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated otherwise [Figure 16]
• When a different altimeter source is required, or more than one source is authorized, it will be annotated on the approach chart.
• Approach minimums may be raised when using an authorized non-local altimeter source.
  • When more than one altimeter source is authorized, and the minima are different, they will be shown by separate lines in the approach minima box or a note.

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  • When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach is based is not available, the approach is not authorized.
  • Baro-VNAV must be flown using the local altimeter setting only.
    • Where no local altimeter is available, the LNAV/VNAV line will still be published for use by WAAS receivers with a note that Baro-VNAV is not authorized.
    • When a local and at least one other altimeter setting source is authorized and the local altimeter is not available Baro-VNAV is not authorized; however, the LNAV/VNAV minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the alternate altimeter setting source
    • NOTE-Barometric Vertical Navigation (baro-VNAV). An RNAV system function which uses barometric altitude information from the aircraft's altimeter to compute and present a vertical guidance path to the pilot. The specified vertical path is computed as a geometric path, typically computed between two waypoints or an angle based computation from a single waypoint. Further guidance may be found in Advisory Circular 90-105

• Instrument Approach Categories:

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  • Aircraft approach categories are groupings of aircraft based on V_REF at the maximum certified landing weight, if specified, or 1.3 V_SO at the maximum certified landing weight (if V_REF is not specified).
    • Aircraft categories therefore maintain TERPS criteria based on expected performance, directly effecting the approach minimums.
    • When circling, pilots must maneuver the aircraft within the circling approach protected area to achieve the obstacle and terrain clearances provided by procedure design criteria. [Figure 17]
      • Protected areas are defined as a radius (in NM) from the airport, and is published in the circling approach maneuvering radius table in the approach charts.
      • In addition to pilot techniques for maneuvering, one acceptable method to reduce the risk of flying out of the circling approach protected area is to use either the minima corresponding to the category determined during certification or minima associated with a higher category.
      • Helicopters may use Category A minima. If it is necessary to operate at a speed in excess of the upper limit of the speed range for an aircraft's category, the minimums for the higher category should be used. This may occur with certain aircraft types operating in heavy/gusty wind, icing, or non-normal conditions. For example, an airplane which fits into Category B, but is circling to land at a speed of 145 knots, should use the approach Category D minimums. As an additional example, a Category A airplane (or helicopter) which is operating at 130 knots on a straight-in approach should use the approach Category C minimums
  • A pilot who chooses an alternative method when it is necessary to maneuver at a speed that exceeds the category speed limit (for example, where higher category minimums are not published) should consider the following factors that can significantly affect the actual ground track flown:
    • Bank angle. For example, at 165 knots groundspeed, the radius of turn increases from 4,194 feet using 30 degrees of bank to 6,654 feet when using 20 degrees of bank. When using a shallower bank angle, it may be necessary to modify the flightpath or indicated airspeed to remain within the circling approach protected area. Pilots should be aware that excessive bank angle can lead to a loss of aircraft control
    • Indicated airspeed. Procedure design criteria typically utilize the highest speed for a particular category. If a pilot chooses to operate at a higher speed, other factors should be modified to ensure that the aircraft remains within the circling approach protected area
    • Wind speed and direction. For example, it is not uncommon to maneuver the aircraft to a downwind leg where the groundspeed will be considerably higher than the indicated airspeed. Pilots must carefully plan the initiation of all turns to ensure that the aircraft remains within the circling approach protected area
    • Pilot technique. Pilots frequently have many options with regard to flightpath when conducting circling approaches. Sound planning and judgment are vital to proper execution. The lateral and vertical path to be flown should be carefully considered using current weather and terrain information to ensure that the aircraft remains within the circling approach protected area
  • It is important to remember that 14 CFR Section 91.175(c) requires that "where a DA/DH or MDA is applicable, no pilot may operate an aircraft below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the authorized DA/DH unless the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted under Part 121 or Part 135 unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown zone of the runway of intended landing"
    • See approach and landing minimums page for greater detail on what is required to continue an approach

  • Category A:

    Speed less than 91 knots

  • Category B:

    Speed 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots

  • Category C:

    Speed 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots

  • Category D:

    Speed 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots

  • Category E:

    Speed 166 knots or more
  • VREF in the above definition refers to the speed used in establishing the approved landing distance under the airworthiness regulations constituting the type certification basis of the airplane, regardless of whether that speed for a particular airplane is 1.3 VSO, 1.23 VSR, or some higher speed required for airplane controllability. This speed, at the maximum certificated landing weight, determines the lowest applicable approach category for all approaches regardless of actual landing weight

• TERPS Criteria:

  • Precision Approach Criteria:

    • Precision Approaches (PAs) are instrument approaches based on a navigation system that provides course and glidepath deviation information meeting the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10.
      • Examples include: PAR, ILS, and GLS approaches.

  • Approach with Vertical Guidance:

    • Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APVs) are instrument approaches based on a navigation system that is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10, but provides course and glidepath deviation information.
      • This means vertical guidance is just that, guidance, and therefore not a precision approach.
      • Examples include: Baro-VNAV, LDA with glidepath, LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches.

  • Non-Precision Approach (NPA):

    • A Non-Precision Approach (NPA) is an instrument approach based on a navigation system which provides course deviation information, but no glidepath deviation information.
      • Examples include: VOR, NDB and LNAV approaches.
      • Some approach procedures may provide a Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) as an aid in flying a stabilized approach.
      • While a VDA may be provided, the approach is designed without requiring its use and so this does not make the approach an APV procedure, since it must still be flown to an MDA and has not been evaluated with a glidepath.
  • Detailed TERPS criteria is outlined in Federal Aviation Administration Order - 8260.3.

Airport Diagram:

• The airport diagram provides a general picture of the airfield and will give you some orientation as to what to expect when you break out of the weather
• The diagram is not overly specific and many airports have a separate diagram published with the approach plates following all of the procedures

Initial Approach Segment:

Intermediate Approach Segment:

Final Approach Segment:

• Visual Segment

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  • When passing the visual descent point on the final approach segment, the pilot is entering the visual segment.
  • A visual segment obstruction evaluation is accomplished during procedure design on all IAPs. Obstacles (both lighted and unlighted) are allowed to penetrate the visual segment obstacle identification surfaces. Identified obstacle penetrations may cause restrictions to instrument approach operations which may include an increased approach visibility requirement, not publishing a VDP, and/or prohibiting night instrument operations to the runway. There is no implicit obstacle protection from the MDA/DA to the touchdown point. Accordingly, it is the responsibility of the pilot to visually acquire and avoid obstacles below the MDA/DA during transition to landing
    • Unlighted obstacle penetrations (breaking 20:1 obstruction clearance standards) may result in prohibiting night instrument operations to the runway. A chart note will be published in the pilot briefing strip "Procedure NA at Night" [Figure 29]
    • Use of a VGSI may be approved in lieu of obstruction lighting to restore night instrument operations to the runway. A chart note will be published in the pilot briefing strip "Straight-in Rwy XX at Night, operational VGSI required, remain on or above VGSI glidepath until threshold" [Figure 30]

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  • Obstacles (man-made, terrain, or vegetation) are charted on the planview of an IAP
    • The elevation of the charted obstacle will be shown to the nearest foot above mean sea level
    • Other obstacles may be charted in either the planview or the airport sketch based on distance from the runway and available chart space
  • The highest obstacle (man-made, terrain, or vegetation) will be indicated on the planview of an IAP with a larger font size
  • Obstacles without a verified accuracy are indicated by a ± symbol following the elevation value [Figure 31]
  • If not VDP is present, the pilot may create their own for reference by dividing altitude to lose (MDA altitude minus TDZE) by 300
    • Creating a reference VDP allows the pilot to calculate a safe descent rate to landing, that if not executed (runway not yet in sight), means the rate of descent required is only going to increase
    • Lack of a VDP likely includes a note "visual segment - obstalces" to provide warning that good visibility is necessary to descend

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• Visual Descent Angle:

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  • FAA policy is to publish Vertical Descent Angles (VDAs) on all non-precision approaches except those published in conjunction with vertically guided minimums or no-FAF procedures without step-down fixes. A VDA does not guarantee obstacle protection below the MDA in the visual segment. The presence of a VDA does not change any nonprecision approach requirements
    • Obstacles may penetrate the obstacle identification surface below the MDA in the visual segment of an IAP that has a published VDA/TCH. When the VDA/TCH is not authorized due to an obstacle penetration that would require a pilot to deviate from the VDA between MDA and touchdown, the VDA/TCH will be replaced with the note "Visual Segment Obstacles" in the profile view of the IAP (See FIG 5-4-13). Accordingly, pilots are advised to carefully review approach procedures to identify where the optimum stabilized descent to landing can be initiated. Pilots that follow the previously published descent angle, provided by the RNAV system, below the MDA on procedures with this note may encounter obstacles in the visual segment. Pilots must visually avoid any obstacles below the MDA
      • VDA/TCH data is furnished by FAA on the official source document for publication on IAP charts and for coding in the navigation database unless, as noted previously, replaced by the note "Visual Segment - Obstacles"
      • Commercial chart providers and navigation systems may publish or calculate a VDA/TCH even when the FAA does not provide such data. Pilots are cautioned that they are responsible for obstacle avoidance in the visual segment regardless of the presence or absence of a VDA/TCH and associated navigation system advisory vertical guidance
    • The threshold segment height (TCH) used to compute the descent angle is published with the VDA. The VDA and TCH information are charted on the profile view of the IAP following the fix (FAF/stepdown) used to compute the VDA. If no PA/APV IAP is establish to the same runway, the VDA will be equal to or higher than the glide path angle of the VGSI installed on the same runway provided it is within instrument procedure criteria. A chart note will indicate if the VGSI is not coincident with the VDA. Pilots must be aware that the published VDA is for advisory information only and not to be considered instrument procedure derived vertical guidance. The VDA solely offers and aid to help pilots establish a continuous, stabilized descent during final approach
    • Pilots may use the published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of descent from the rate of descent table published in the back of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication. This rate of descent can be flown with the Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI) in order to use the VDA as an aid to flying a stabilized descent. No special equipment is required
    • A straight-in aligned procedure may be restricted to circling only minimums when an excessive descent gradient necessitates. The descent angle between the FAF/stepdown fix and the Circling MDA must not exceed the maximum descent angle allowed by TERPS criteria. A published VDA on these procedures does not imply that landing straight ahead is recommended or even possible. The descent rate based on the VDA may exceed the capabilities of the aircraft and the pilot must determine how to best maneuver the aircraft within the circling area in order to land safely
  • IAPs may contain a published visual flight path, annotated by "Fly Visual to Airport" or "Fly Visual"
    • A dashed arrow indicating the visual flight path is included in the profile and plan views with an approximate heading and distance to the end of the runway
    • The depicted ground track associated with the "Fly Visual to Airport" segment should be flown as a "Dead Reckoning" course. When executing the "Fly Visual to Airport" segment, the flight visibility must not be less than that prescribed in the IAP; the pilot must remain clear of clouds and proceed to the airport maintaining visual contact with the ground. Altitude on the visual flight path is at the discretion of the pilot, and it is the responsibility of the pilot to visually acquire and avoid obstacles in the "Fly Visual to Airport" segment
      • It is therefore not a requirement to have the airport environment in sight to fly this segment
    • Missed approach obstacle clearance is assured only if the missed approach is commenced at the published MAP. Before initiating an IAP that contains a "Fly Visual to Airport" segment, the pilot should have pre-planned climb out options based on aircraft performance and terrain features. Obstacle clearance is the responsibility of the pilot when the approach is continued beyond the MAP
    • The FAA Administrator retains the authority to approve instrument approach procedures where the pilot may not necessarily have one of the visual references specified in 14 CFR 91.175 and related rules. It is not a function of procedure design to ensure compliance with FAR 91.175. The annotation "Fly Visual to Airport" provides relief from 91.175 requirements that the pilot have distinctly visible and identifiable visual references prior to descent below MDA/DA

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Visual Approach Conditions

• Advise ATC if you can no longer maintain the following requirements:
  1. The airport or preceding aircraft in sight.
     • If the preceding aircraft is not in sight, the controller is responsible for aircraft separation.
  2. Authorized under the control of the appropriate traffic control facility.
     • ATC may authorize this type of approach when it is operationally beneficial.
     • Can be requested by the pilot, or rejected in favor of a full IAP.
     • Pilot assumes traffic separation & obstruction clearance when proceeding visually.
  3. Reported weather at the airport must be a ceiling at or above 1,000' and visibility at 3 SM or greater (VMC).
     • Cloud clearance requirements of 14 CFR 91.155 are not applicable unless required by operation specifications.
  4. When conducting visual approaches, pilots are encouraged to use other available navigational aids to assist in positive lateral and vertical alignment with the runway.
• A visual approach is not an IAP and therefore has no missed approach segment.
  • If a go-around is necessary for any reason, aircraft operating at controlled airports will be issued an appropriate clearance or instruction by the tower to enter the traffic pattern for landing or proceed as otherwise instructed.
  • In either case, the pilot is responsible for maintaining terrain and obstruction avoidance until reaching an ATC-assigned altitude if issued, and ATC will provide approved separation or visual separation from other IFR aircraft.
  • At uncontrolled airports, aircraft are expected to remain clear of clouds and complete a landing as soon as possible.
  • If a landing cannot be accomplished, the aircraft is expected to remain clear of clouds and contact ATC as soon as possible for further clearance.
  • Separation from other IFR aircraft will be maintained under these circumstances.
• Authorization to conduct a visual approach is an IFR authorization and does not alter IFR flight plan cancellation responsibility see AIM, Canceling IFR Flight Plan, Paragraph 5-1-15.
• Radar service is automatically terminated, without advising the pilot, when the aircraft is instructed to change to advisory frequency.
• ATC Service is terminated when told to contact advisory frequency in the case of non-controlled fields.
• NOT the same thing as a visual straight-in, however, may be flown as such if location permits.
• For specifics on approach criteria from an ATC standpoint read 5-4-22 (c).

Operating to an Airport Without Weather Reporting Service

• ATC will advise the pilot when the weather is not available at the destination airport.
• ATC may initiate a visual approach provided there is a reasonable assurance that the weather at the airport is a ceiling at or above 1,000' and visibility 3 miles or greater.

Operating to an Airport With an Operating Control Tower

• Aircraft may be authorized to conduct a visual approach to one runway while other aircraft are conducting IFR or VFR approaches to another parallel, intersecting, or converging runway. ATC may authorize a visual approach after advising all aircraft involved that other aircraft are conducting operations to the other runway. This may be accomplished through the use of the ATIS.
  • When operating to parallel runways separated by less than 2,500 feet, ATC will ensure approved separation is provided unless the succeeding aircraft reports sighting the preceding aircraft to the adjacent parallel and visual separation is applied.
  • When operating to parallel runways separated by at least 2,500 feet but less than 4,300 feet, ATC will ensure approved separation is provided until the aircraft are issued an approach clearance and one pilot has acknowledged receipt of a visual approach clearance, and the other pilot has acknowledged receipt of a visual or instrument approach clearance, and aircraft are established on a heading or established on a direct course to a fix or cleared on an RNAV/instrument approach procedure which will intercept the extended centerline of the runway at an angle not greater than 30°.
  • When operating to parallel runways separated by 4,300 feet or more, ATC will ensure approved separation is provided until one of the aircraft has been issued and the pilot has acknowledged receipt of the visual approach clearance, and each aircraft is assigned a heading, or established on a direct course to a fix, or cleared on an RNAV/instrument approach procedure which will allow the aircraft to intercept the extended centerline of the runway at an angle not greater than 30°.
  • The 30-degree intercept angle reduces the potential for overshoots of the final.
    • It further precludes side-by-side operations with one or both aircraft in a belly-up configuration during the turn-on.

Clearance for Visual Approach

• At locations with an operating control tower, ATC will issue approach clearances that will include an assigned runway.
• At locations without an operating control tower or where a part-time tower is closed, ATC will issue a visual approach clearance to the airport only.
• ATC: "[Callsign], fly [Instructions], vectors for visual approach to [Airport Name/Runway]."

Visual Straight-in Planning

• Used for simplicity or emergency situations.
  • Generally, pilots prefer to fly a 'standard' 3° glide slope.
• Fly checkpoints to touchdown.
  • 10 NM = 3000' AGL.
  • 9 NM = 2700' AGL.
  • 8 NM = 2400' AGL.
  • 7 NM = 2100' AGL.
  • 6 NM = 1800' AGL.
  • 5 NM = 1500' AGL.
  • 4 NM = 1200' AGL.
  • 3 NM = 900' AGL.
  • 2 NM = 600' AGL.
  • 1 NM = 300' AGL.
• The rate of descent can be determined by dividing ground speed by 2 and adding a 0, for example, 100 knots ground speed divided by 2 is 50, adding a 0 is 500, or 500 FPM.

Visual Approach Responsibilities

• Pilot Responsibilities:

  • If you do not want a visual approach, advise ATC.
  • Complies with the controller's instructions for vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a visual position behind a preceding aircraft.
  • The pilot must, at all times, have either the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight.
    • After being cleared for a visual approach, proceed to the airport in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft.
    • Remain clear of clouds while conducting a visual approach.
  • When following a preceding aircraft visually, acceptance of the visual approach clearance constitutes acceptance of the pilot's responsibility for maintaining a safe approach interval and adequate wake turbulence separation.
  • Advise ATC immediately if the pilot is unable to continue following the preceding aircraft, cannot remain clear of clouds, needs to climb, or loses sight of the airport.
  • In the event of a go-around, the pilot is responsible for maintaining terrain and obstruction avoidance until reaching an ATC-assigned altitude if issued.
  • Be aware that radar service is automatically terminated, without being advised by ATC, when the pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency.
  • Be aware that other traffic may be in the traffic pattern, and the landing sequence may differ from the traffic sequence assigned by approach control or ARTCC.
  • Pilots conducting a visual approach under IFR must remain clear of clouds, but need not maintain VFR cloud clearances.
  • Visual approaches are not authorizations to deviate from airport arrival procedures such as traffic pattern directions.

• Controller Responsibilities:

  • Do not clear an aircraft for a visual approach unless the reported weather at the airport has a ceiling at or above 1,000' and visibility is 3 miles or greater.
    • If weather is unavailable at the destination airport, inform the pilot and refrain from initiating a visual approach unless you can reasonably ensure the pilot can descend and approach the airport visually.
  • Issue visual approach clearance when the pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding aircraft.
  • Provide separation except when visual separation is being applied by the pilot.
  • Continue flight following and traffic information until the aircraft has landed or has been instructed to change to advisory frequency.
  • For all aircraft, inform the pilot when the preceding aircraft is a heavy. Inform the pilot of a small aircraft when the preceding aircraft is a B757.
    • Visual separation is prohibited behind super aircraft.
  • If the pilot has the airport in sight but cannot see the aircraft they're following, ATC may clear the pilot for a visual approach; however, ATC retains responsibility for both separation and wake-vortex separation.
  • When weather is available for the destination airport, do not initiate a vector for a visual approach unless the reported ceiling at the airport is 500' or more above the MVA and visibility is 3 miles or more. If vectoring weather minima are not available but weather at the airport is ceiling at or above 1,000' and visibility of 3 miles or greater, visual approaches may still be conducted.

Procedure Turn Limitations:

• No pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when final approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises ATC and clearance is received to execute a procedure turn
  • The holding pattern maneuver is completed when the aircraft is established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry
  • If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC
• When a teardrop procedure is depicted and a course reversal is required, this type of turn must be executed
• When a holding pattern replaces a procedure turn, the holding pattern must be followed except when radar vectoring is provided or when NoPT is shown on the approach course
  • The recommended entry procedures will ensure the aircraft remains within the holding pattern's protected airspace. As in the procedure turn, the descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may not commence until the aircraft is established on the inbound course. Where a holding pattern is established in-lieu-of a procedure turn, the maximum holding pattern airspeeds apply
• The absence of the procedure turn barb in the plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not authorized for that procedure
• A tear drop is the most efficient course reversal (gets you back on the inbound radial immediately)
• When approaching an IAF without a "NO PT" stipulation (i.e., from a victor airway), the pilot is expected to fly the procedure turn, unless requested and ATC approves to omit

Terminal Arrival Area

• 

• The Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) provides a transition from the en-route structure to the terminal environment with little required pilot/air traffic control interface for aircraft equipped with Area Navigation (RNAV) systems.
• A TAA provides minimum altitudes with standard obstacle clearance when operating within the TAA boundaries.
• TAAs are primarily used on RNAV approaches but may be used on an ILS approach when RNAV is the sole means for navigation to the IF; however, they are not normally used in areas of heavy concentration of air traffic.
• The basic design of the RNAV procedure underlying the TAA is normally the "T" design (also called the "Basic T").
  • The "T" design incorporates two IAFs plus a dual purpose IF/IAF that functions as both an intermediate fix and an initial approach fix.
  • The T configuration continues from the IF/IAF to the final approach fix (FAF) and then to the missed approach point (MAP).
  • The two base leg IAFs are typically aligned in a straight-line perpendicular to the intermediate course connecting at the IF/IAF.
  • A Hold-in-Lieu-of Procedure Turn (HILPT) is anchored at the IF/IAF and depicted on U.S. Government publications using the "hold-in-lieu -of-PT" holding pattern symbol.
  • When the HILPT is necessary for course alignment and/or descent, the dual purpose IF/IAF serves as an IAF during the entry into the pattern.
  • Following entry into the HILPT pattern and when flying a route or sector labeled "NoPT," the dual-purpose fix serves as an IF, marking the beginning of the Intermediate Segment. [Figure 16/17]

  • 

  • The standard TAA based on the "T" design consists of three areas defined by the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) legs and the intermediate segment course beginning at the IF/IAF.
    • These areas are called the straight-in, left-base, and right-base areas. [Figure x]
    • TAA area lateral boundaries are identified by magnetic courses TO the IF/IAF.
    • The straight-in area can be further divided into pie- shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by magnetic courses TO the (IF/ IAF), and may contain stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV distances from the IF/IAF. [Figure x]
    • The right/left-base areas can only be subdivided using arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAFs for those areas.

  • 

  • 

  • Entry from the terminal area onto the procedure is normally accomplished via a no procedure turn (NoPT) routing or via a course reversal maneuver.
    • The published procedure will be annotated "NoPT" to indicate when the course reversal is not authorized when flying within a particular TAA sector.
    • Otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the course reversal under the provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.175.
    • The pilot may elect to use the course reversal pattern when it is not required by the procedure, but must receive clearance from air traffic control before beginning the procedure.
      • ATC should not clear an aircraft to the left base leg or right base leg IAF within a TAA at an intercept angle exceeding 90°. Pilots must not execute the HILPT course reversal when the sector or procedure segment is labeled "NoPT."
    • ATC may clear aircraft direct to the fix labeled IF/IAF if the course to the IF/IAF is within the straight-in sector labeled "NoPT" and the intercept angle does not exceed 90°.
      • Pilots are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and accomplish a straight-in approach.
      • Do not execute HILPT course reversal.
      • Pilots are also expected to fly the straight-in approach when ATC provides radar vectors and monitoring to the IF/IAF and issues a "straight-in" approach clearance; otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the HILPT course reversal.
      • Reference-AIM, Paragraph 5-4-6, Approach Clearance
    • On rare occasions, ATC may clear the aircraft for an approach at the airport without specifying the approach procedure by name or by a specific approach (for example, "cleared RNAV Runway 34 approach") without specifying a particular IAF.
      • In either case, the pilot should proceed direct to the IAF or to the IF/IAF associated with the sector that the aircraft will enter the TAA and join the approach course from that point and if required by that sector (i.e., sector is not labeled "NoPT"), complete the HILPT course reversal.
        • If approaching with a TO bearing that is on a sector boundary, the pilot is expected to proceed in accordance with a "NoPT" routing unless otherwise instructed by ATC.

  • 

  • Altitudes published within the TAA replace the MSA altitude (and provide the same obstruction clearance).
    • However, unlike MSA altitudes the TAA altitudes are operationally usable altitudes.
    • It is important that the pilot knows which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter in order to comply with the minimum altitude requirements. The pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter by determining the magnetic bearing of the aircraft TO the fix labeled IF/IAF. The bearing should then be compared to the published lateral boundary bearings that define the TAA areas. Do not use magnetic bearing to the right-base or left-base IAFs to determine position
      • An ATC clearance direct to an IAF or to the IF/IAF without an approach clearance does not authorize a pilot to descend to a lower TAA altitude
      • If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an approach clearance, request the lower TAA altitude from ATC
      • Pilots not sure of the clearance should confirm their clearance with ATC or request a specific clearance
      • Pilots entering the TAA with two-way radio communications failure (14 CFR Section 91.185, IFR Operations: Two-way Radio Communications Failure), must maintain the highest altitude prescribed by Section 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate IAF
      • Once cleared for the approach, pilots may descend in the TAA sector to the minimum altitude depicted within the defined area/subdivision, unless instructed otherwise by air traffic control
        • If flying on an airway already, the TAA does not apply
        • When ATC clears the pilot for the approach without specifying altitude, the pilot may descent to lowest appropriate MEA
      • Pilots should plan their descent within the TAA to permit a normal descent from the IF/IAF to the FAF
      • Pilots within the left or right-base areas are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet until within 17 NM of the associated IAF [Figure 18]
      • After crossing the 17 NM arc, descent is authorized to the lower charted altitudes
      • Pilots approaching from the northwest are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet, and when within 22 NM of the IF/IAF, descend to a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet MSL until crossing the IF/IAF

  • 

  • U.S. Government charts depict TAAs using icons located in the plan view outside the depiction of the actual approach procedure. Use of icons is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion of the "T" procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes, etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be located and oriented on the plan view with respect to the direction of arrival to the approach procedure, and will show all TAA minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivisions. The IAF for each area of the TAA is included on the icon where it appears on the approach to help the pilot orient the icon to the approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included on the outside arc of the TAA area icon [Figure 19]

  • 

  • TAAs may be modified from the standard size and shape to accommodate operational or ATC requirements. Some areas may be eliminated, while the other areas are expanded. The "T" design may be modified by the procedure designers where required by terrain or ATC considerations. For instance, the "T" design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly shaped "Y," upside down "L," or an "I"
    • [Figure 20] depicts a TAA without a left base leg and right base leg. In this generalized example, pilots approaching on a bearing TO the IF/IAF from 271 clockwise to 089 are expected to execute a course reversal because the amount of turn required at the IF/IAF exceeds 90 degrees. The term "NoPT" will be annotated on the boundary of the TAA icon for the other portion of the TAA

  • 

  • [Figure 21] depicts another TAA modification that pilots may encounter. In this generalized example, the left base area and part of the straight-in area have been eliminated. Pilots operating within the TAA between 210 clockwise to 360 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and then execute the course reversal in order to properly align the aircraft for entry onto the intermediate segment or to avoid an excessive descent rate. Aircraft operating in areas from 001 clockwise to 090 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the right base IAF and not execute course reversal maneuver. Aircraft cleared direct the IF/IAF by ATC in this sector will be expected to accomplish HILTP. Aircraft operating in areas 091 clockwise to 209 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and not execute the course reversal. These two areas are annotated "NoPT" at the TAA boundary of the icon in these areas when displayed on the approach chart's plan view

  • 

  • [Figure 22] depicts a TAA with right base leg and part of the straight-in area eliminated

  • 

  • When an airway does not cross the lateral TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established from an airway fix or NAVAID to the TAA boundary to provide a transition from the en route structure to the appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at the TAA boundary and will be aligned along a path pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary and cleared for the approach by ATC [Figure 23]
  • Each waypoint on the "T" is assigned a pronounceable 5-letter name, except the missed approach waypoint. These names are used for ATC communications, RNAV databases, and aeronautical navigation products. The missed approach waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not located at the runway threshold

  • 

Procedures for Accomplishing GPS Approaches

• An RNAV (GPS) procedure may be associated with a Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)
  • The basic design of the RNAV procedure is the "T" design or a modification of the "T" (See Paragraph 5-4-5d, Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), for complete information)
• Pilots cleared by ATC for an RNAV (GPS) approach should fly the full approach from an Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix
  • Randomly joining an approach at an intermediate fix does not assure terrain clearance
• When an approach has been loaded in the navigation system, GPS receivers will give an "arm" annunciation 30 NM straight line distance from the airport/heliport reference point
  • Pilots should arm the approach mode at this time if not already armed (some receivers arm automatically)
  • Without arming, the receiver will not change from en-route CDI and RAIM sensitivity of ±5 NM either side of centerline to ±1 NM terminal sensitivity
  • Where the IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI sensitivity change will occur once the approach mode is armed and the aircraft is inside 30 NM
  • Where the IAWP is beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport reference point and the approach is armed, the CDI sensitivity will not change until the aircraft is within 30 miles of the airport/heliport reference point
  • Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the receiver being in terminal (±1 NM) CDI sensitivity and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport reference point; therefore, the receiver should always be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM annunciation
• The pilot must be aware of what bank angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are included in the receiver's calculations
  • This information should be in the receiver operating manual
  • Over or under banking the turn onto the final approach course may significantly delay getting on course and may result in high descent rates to achieve the next segment altitude
• When within 2 NM of the Final Approach Waypoint (FAWP) with the approach mode armed, the approach mode will switch to active, which results in RAIM and CDI changing to approach sensitivity
  • Beginning 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the full scale CDI sensitivity will smoothly change from ±1 NM to ±0.3 NM at the FAWP
  • As sensitivity changes from ±1 NM to ±0.3 NM approaching the FAWP, with the CDI not centered, the corresponding increase in CDI displacement may give the impression that the aircraft is moving further away from the intended course even though it is on an acceptable intercept heading
  • Referencing the digital track displacement information (cross track error), if it is available in the approach mode, may help the pilot remain position oriented in this situation
  • Being established on the final approach course prior to the beginning of the sensitivity change at 2 NM will help prevent problems in interpreting the CDI display during ramp down
  • Therefore, requesting or accepting vectors which will cause the aircraft to intercept the final approach course within 2 NM of the FAWP is not recommended
• When receiving vectors to final, most receiver operating manuals suggest placing the receiver in the non-sequencing mode on the FAWP and manually setting the course
  • This provides an extended final approach course in cases where the aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course outside of any existing segment which is aligned with the runway
  • Assigned altitudes must be maintained until established on a published segment of the approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered
  • Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be required in order to descend at the proper location
• Overriding an automatically selected sensitivity during an approach will cancel the approach mode annunciation
  • If the approach mode is not armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the FAWP, and the equipment will flag
  • In these conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA, but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach
  • The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver should be checked to ensure the approach mode is active prior to the FAWP
• Do not attempt to fly an approach unless the procedure in the onboard database is current and identified as "GPS" on the approach chart
  • The navigation database may contain information about non-overlay approach procedures that enhances position orientation generally by providing a map, while flying these approaches using conventional NAVAIDs
  • This approach information should not be confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supplement for details on how to identify these procedures in the navigation database)
  • Flying point to point on the approach does not assure compliance with the published approach procedure
  • The proper RAIM sensitivity will not be available and the CDI sensitivity will not automatically change to ±0.3 NM
  • Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some receivers
  • Some existing non-precision approach procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will not be available as overlays
• Pilots should pay particular attention to the exact operation of their GPS receivers for performing holding patterns and in the case of overlay approaches, operations such as procedure turns
  • These procedures may require manual intervention by the pilot to stop the sequencing of waypoints by the receiver and to resume automatic GPS navigation sequencing once the maneuver is complete
  • The same waypoint may appear in the route of flight more than once consecutively (for example, IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on a procedure turn)
  • Care must be exercised to ensure that the receiver is sequenced to the appropriate waypoint for the segment of the procedure being flown, especially if one or more fly-overs are skipped (for example, FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn is not flown)
  • The pilot may have to sequence past one or more fly-overs of the same waypoint in order to start GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in the sequence of waypoints
• Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver are especially critical during approaches
  • In some cases, an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave the approach mode
• A fix on an overlay approach identified by a DME fix will not be in the waypoint sequence on the GPS receiver unless there is a published name assigned to it
  • When a name is assigned, the along track distance (ATD) to the waypoint may be zero rather than the DME stated on the approach chart
  • The pilot should be alert for this on any overlay procedure where the original approach used DME
• If a visual descent point (VDP) is published, it will not be included in the sequence of waypoints
  • Pilots are expected to use normal piloting techniques for beginning the visual descent, such as ATD
• Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final approach segment may or may not be coded in the waypoint sequence of the aircraft's navigation database and must be identified using ATD
  • Stepdown fixes in the final approach segment of RNAV (GPS) approaches are being named, in addition to being identified by ATD
  • However, GPS avionics may or may not accommodate waypoints between the FAF and MAP
  • Pilots must know the capabilities of their GPS equipment and continue to identify stepdown fixes using ATD when necessary

Missed Approach

• A GPS missed approach requires pilot action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the missed approach portion of the procedure
  • The pilot must be thoroughly familiar with the activation procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action after the MAWP
  • Activating the missed approach prior to the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to immediately change to terminal (±1NM) sensitivity and the receiver will continue to navigate to the MAWP
  • The receiver will not sequence past the MAWP
  • Turns should not begin prior to the MAWP
  • If the missed approach is not activated, the GPS receiver will display an extension of the inbound final approach course and the ATD will increase from the MAWP until it is manually sequenced after crossing the MAWP
• Missed approach routings in which the first track is via a course rather than direct to the next waypoint require additional action by the pilot to set the course
  • Being familiar with all of the inputs required is especially critical during this phase of flight

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

• RAIM outages may occur due to an insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable satellite geometry which causes the error in the position solution to become too large
  • Loss of satellite reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle)
  • Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect reception of one or more satellites
  • Since the relative positions of the satellites are constantly changing, prior experience with the airport does not guarantee reception at all times, and RAIM availability should always be checked
• Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM availability information for nonprecision approach procedures by using a manufacturer-supplied RAIM prediction tool, or using the Service Availability Prediction Tool (SAPT) on the FAA en route and terminal RAIM prediction website
  • Pilots can also request GPS RAIM aeronautical information from a flight service station during preflight briefings
  • GPS RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for a period of 3 hours (for example, if you are scheduled to arrive at 1215 hours, then the GPS RAIM information is available from 1100 to 1400 hours) or a 24-hour timeframe at a particular airport
  • FAA briefers will provide RAIM information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA hour, unless a specific timeframe is requested by the pilot
  • If flying a published GPS departure, a RAIM prediction should also be requested for the departure airport
• The military provides airfield specific GPS RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach procedures at military airfields
  • The RAIM outages are issued as M-series NOTAMs and may be obtained for up to 24 hours from the time of request
• Receiver manufacturers and/or database suppliers may supply "NOTAM" type information concerning database errors
  • Pilots should check these sources when available, to ensure that they have the most current information concerning their electronic database
• If RAIM is not available, use another type of navigation and approach system; select another route or destination; or delay the trip until RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival
  • On longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight
  • This may provide an early indication that an unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since takeoff
• If a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs prior to the final approach waypoint (FAWP), the approach should not be completed since GPS no longer provides the required integrity
  • The receiver performs a RAIM prediction by 2 NM prior to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is available as a condition for entering the approach mode
  • The pilot should ensure the receiver has sequenced from "Armed" to "Approach" prior to the FAWP (normally occurs 2 NM prior)
  • Failure to sequence may be an indication of the detection of a satellite anomaly, failure to arm the receiver (if required), or other problems which preclude flying the approach
• If the receiver does not sequence into the approach mode or a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot must not initiate the approach nor descend, but instead, proceed to the missed approach waypoint (MAWP) via the FAWP, perform a missed approach, and contact ATC as soon as practical
  • The GPS receiver may continue to operate after a RAIM flag/status annunciation appears, but the navigation information should be considered advisory only
  • Refer to the receiver operating manual for specific indications and instructions associated with loss of RAIM prior to the FAF
• If the RAIM flag/status annunciation appears after the FAWP, the pilot should initiate a climb and execute the missed approach
  • The GPS receiver may continue to operate after a RAIM flag/status annunciation appears, but the navigation information should be considered advisory only
  • Refer to the receiver operating manual for operating mode information during a RAIM annunciation

GPS Waypoints

• GPS receivers navigate from one defined point to another retrieved from the aircraft's onboard navigational database
  • These points are waypoints (5-letter pronounceable name), existing VHF intersections, DME fixes with 5-letter pronounceable names and 3-letter NAVAID IDs
  • Each waypoint is a geographical location defined by a latitude/longitude geographic coordinate
  • These 5-letter waypoints, VHF intersections, 5-letter pronounceable DME fixes and 3-letter NAVAID IDs are published on various FAA aeronautical navigation products (IFR Enroute Charts, VFR Charts, Terminal Procedures Publications, etc.)
• A Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) is also a point defined by a latitude/longitude coordinate and is required to support Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) operations
  • The GPS receiver uses CNFs in conjunction with waypoints to navigate from point to point
  • However, CNFs are not recognized by ATC. ATC does not maintain CNFs in their database and they do not use CNFs for any air traffic control purpose
  • CNFs may or may not be charted on FAA aeronautical navigation products, are listed in the chart legends, and are for advisory purposes only
  • Pilots are not to use CNFs for point to point navigation (proceed direct), filing a flight plan, or in aircraft/ATC communications
  • CNFs that do appear on aeronautical charts allow pilots increased situational awareness by identifying points in the aircraft database route of flight with points on the aeronautical chart
  • CNFs are random five-letter identifiers, not pronounceable like waypoints and placed in parenthesis
  • Eventually, all CNFs will begin with the letters "CF" followed by three consonants (for example, CFWBG)
  • This five-letter identifier will be found next to an "x" on enroute charts and possibly on an approach chart
  • On instrument approach procedures (charts) in the terminal procedures publication, CNFs may represent unnamed DME fixes, beginning and ending points of DME arcs, and sensor (ground-based signal i.e., VOR, NDB, ILS) final approach fixes on GPS overlay approaches
  • These CNFs provide the GPS with points on the procedure that allow the overlay approach to mirror the ground-based sensor approach
  • These points should only be used by the GPS system for navigation and should not be used by pilots for any other purpose on the approach
  • The CNF concept has not been adopted or recognized by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
• GPS approaches use fly-over and fly-by waypoints to join route segments on an approach
  • Fly-by waypoints connect the two segments by allowing the aircraft to turn prior to the current waypoint in order to roll out on course to the next waypoint
  • This is known as turn anticipation and is compensated for in the airspace and terrain clearances
  • The missed approach waypoint (MAWP) will always be a fly-over waypoint
  • A holding waypoint will always be designed as a fly-over waypoint in the navigational database but may be charted as a fly-by event unless the holding waypoint is used for another purpose in the procedure and both events require the waypoint to be a fly-over event
  • Some waypoints may have dual use; for example, as a fly-by waypoint when used as an IF for a NoPT route and as a fly-over waypoint when the same waypoint is also used as an IAF/IF hold-in-lieu of PT
  • Since the waypoint can only be charted one way, when this situation occurs, the fly-by waypoint symbol will be charted in all uses of the waypoint
• Unnamed waypoints for each airport will be uniquely identified in the database
  • Although the identifier may be used at different airports (for example, RW36 will be the identifier at each airport with a runway 36), the actual point, at each airport, is defined by a specific latitude/longitude coordinate
• The runway threshold waypoint, normally the MAWP, may have a five-letter identifier (for example, SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (for example, RW36, RW36L)
  • MAWPs located at the runway threshold are being changed to the RW## identifier, while MAWPs not located at the threshold will have a five-letter identifier
  • This may cause the approach chart to differ from the aircraft database until all changes are complete
  • The runway threshold waypoint is also used as the center of the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) on most GPS approaches

• Position Orientation:

  • Pilots should pay particular attention to position orientation while using GPS
  • Distance and track information are provided to the next active waypoint, not to a fixed navigation aid
  • Receivers may sequence when the pilot is not flying along an active route, such as when being vectored or deviating for weather, due to the proximity to another waypoint in the route
  • This can be prevented by placing the receiver in the non-sequencing mode
  • When the receiver is in the non-sequencing mode, bearing and distance are provided to the selected waypoint and the receiver will not sequence to the next waypoint in the route until placed back in the auto sequence mode or the pilot selects a different waypoint
  • The pilot may have to compute the ATD to stepdown fixes and other points on overlay approaches, due to the receiver showing ATD to the next waypoint rather than DME to the VOR or ILS ground station

• Impact of Magnetic Variation on PBN Systems:

  • Differences may exist between PBN systems and the charted magnetic courses on ground-based NAVAID instrument flight procedures (IFP), enroute charts, approach charts, and Standard Instrument Departure/Standard Terminal Arrival (SID/STAR) charts. These differences are due to the magnetic variance used to calculate the magnetic course. Every leg of an instrument procedure is first computed along a desired ground track with reference to true north. A magnetic variation correction is then applied to the true course in order to calculate a magnetic course for publication. The type of procedure will determine what magnetic variation value is added to the true course. A ground-based NAVAID IFP applies the facility magnetic variation of record to the true course to get the charted magnetic course. Magnetic courses on PBN procedures are calculated two different ways. SID/STAR procedures use the airport magnetic variation of record, while IFR enroute charts use magnetic reference bearing. PBN systems make a correction to true north by adding a magnetic variation calculated with an algorithm based on aircraft position, or by adding the magnetic variation coded in their navigational database. This may result in the PBN system and the procedure designer using a different magnetic variation, which causes the magnetic course displayed by the PBN system and the magnetic course charted on the IFP plate to be different. It is important to understand, however, that PBN systems, (with the exception of VOR/DME RNAV equipment) navigate by reference to true north and display magnetic course only for pilot reference. As such, a properly functioning PBN system, containing a current and accurate navigational database, should fly the correct ground track for any loaded instrument procedure, despite differences in displayed magnetic course that may be attributed to magnetic variation application. Should significant differences between the approach chart and the PBN system avionics' application of the navigation database arise, the published approach chart, supplemented by NOTAMs, holds precedence
  • The course into a waypoint may not always be 180 degrees different from the course leaving the previous waypoint, due to the PBN system avionics' computation of geodesic paths, distance between waypoints, and differences in magnetic variation application. Variations in distances may also occur since PBN system distance-to-waypoint values are ATDs computed to the next waypoint and the DME values published on underlying procedures are slant-range distances measured to the station. This difference increases with aircraft altitude and proximity to the NAVAID

• GPS Familiarization:

  • Pilots should practice GPS approaches in visual meteorological conditions (VMC) until thoroughly proficient with all aspects of their equipment prior to attempting flight in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
  • Pilots should be proficient in the following areas:
    • Using the receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) prediction function;
    • Inserting a DP into the flight plan, including setting terminal CDI sensitivity, if required, and the conditions under which terminal RAIM is available for departure;
    • Programming the destination airport;
    • Programming and flying the approaches (especially procedure turns and arcs);
    • Changing to another approach after selecting an approach;
    • Programming and flying "direct" missed approaches;
    • Programming and flying "routed" missed approaches;
    • Entering, flying, and exiting holding patterns, particularly on approaches with a second waypoint in the holding pattern;
    • Programming and flying a "route" from a holding pattern;
    • Programming and flying an approach with radar vectors to the intermediate segment;
    • Indication of the actions required for RAIM failure both before and after the FAWP; and
    • Programming a radial and distance from a VOR (often used in departure instructions)

GPS Approach Considerations

• Know your equipment, its operation, and limitations
• If cleared to an approach fix not loaded into the system, consider requesting vectors if more time to load is needed
• Load the expected approach as soon as possible to alleviate work later
  • If the approach changes later, you still have time to correct
• Compare approach plate to system load, to include the use of any holds
• If receiving vectors, activate vectors to finals
  • If stepdown fixes are eliminated by selecting vectors to final, consider not activating vectors and instead activating the specific leg of the approach
• Verify the CDI source is set to the appropriate system
• Monitor the annunicators to verify as expected

Conclusion

• Pilots can visit the FAA's Instrument Flight Procedures Information Gateway to review and submit questions related to the how and why certain procedures are as they are
• Still looking for something? Continue searching:

ILS Approaches to Parallel Runways:

• ATC procedures permit ILS/RNAV/GLS instrument approach operations to dual or triple parallel runway configurations.
• ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to parallel runways are grouped into three classes:
  • Simultaneous Dependent Approaches;
  • Simultaneous Independent Approaches; and
  • Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM Approaches.
• The classification of a parallel runway approach procedure is dependent on adjacent parallel runway centerline separation, ATC procedures, and airport ATC final approach radar monitoring and communications capabilities.
  • At some airports, one or more approach courses may be offset up to 3°.
  • ILS approaches with offset localizer configurations result in loss of Category II/III capabilities and an increase in decision altitude/height (50')
• RNAV approach procedures that are approved for simultaneous operations require GPS as the sensor for position updating.
  • VOR/DME, DME/DME and IRU RNAV updating is not authorized.
• Depending on weather conditions, traffic volume, and the specific combination of runways being utilized for arrival operations, a runway may be used for different types of simultaneous operations, including closely spaced dependent or independent approaches.
  • Parallel approach operations demand heightened pilot situational awareness; therefore, pilots should ensure they understand the type of operation and ask ATC for clarification if necessary.
  • A thorough Approach Procedure Chart review should be conducted with, as a minimum, emphasis on the following approach chart information:
    • Name and number of the approach.
    • Localizer frequency.
    • Inbound localizer/azimuth course.
    • Glideslope/glidepath intercept altitude.
    • Glideslope crossing altitude at the final approach fix.
    • Decision height.
    • Missed approach instructions.
    • Special notes/procedures.
    • The assigned runway location/proximity to adjacent runways.
  • Pilots are informed by ATC or through the ATIS that simultaneous approaches are in use.
• The close proximity of adjacent aircraft conducting simultaneous independent approaches, especially simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches mandates strict pilot compliance with all ATC clearances. ATC assigned airspeeds, altitudes, and headings must be complied with in a timely manner. Autopilot coupled approaches require pilot knowledge of procedures necessary to comply with ATC instructions. Simultaneous independent approaches, particularly simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches necessitate precise approach course tracking to minimize final monitor controller intervention, and unwanted No Transgression Zone (NTZ) penetration. In the unlikely event of a breakout, ATC will not assign altitudes lower than the minimum vectoring altitude. Pilots should notify ATC immediately if there is a degradation of aircraft or navigation systems
• Strict radio discipline is mandatory during simultaneous independent and simultaneous close parallel PRM approach operations. This includes an alert listening watch and the avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio transmissions. Attention must be given to proper call sign usage to prevent the inadvertent execution of clearances intended for another aircraft. Use of abbreviated call signs must be avoided to preclude confusion of aircraft with similar sounding call signs. Pilots must be alert to unusually long periods of silence or any unusual background sounds in their radio receiver. A stuck microphone may block the issuance of ATC instructions on the tower frequency by the final monitor controller during simultaneous independent and simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches. In the case of PRM approaches, the use of a second frequency by the monitor controller mitigates the "stuck mike" or other blockage on the tower frequency
• REFERENCE-AIM, Chapter 4, Section 2, Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques, gives additional communications information
• Use of Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety to parallel approach operations. Pilots should follow recommended TCAS operating procedures presented in approved flight manuals, original equipment manufacturer recommendations, professional newsletters, and FAA publications

• 

Simultaneous Dependent Approaches

• Permit IAPs to dual or triple parallel runway configurations
• Simultaneous dependent approaches are an ATC procedure permitting approaches to airports having parallel runway centerlines separated by at least 2,500 feet up to 9,000 feet. Integral parts of a total system are ILS or other system providing approach navigation, radar, communications, ATC procedures, and required airborne equipment. RNAV equipment in the aircraft or GLS equipment on the ground and in the aircraft may replace the required airborne and ground based ILS equipment. Although non-precision minimums may be published, pilots must only use those procedures specifically authorized by chart note. For example, the chart note "LNAV NA during simultaneous operations," requires vertical guidance. When given a choice, pilots should always fly a precision approach whenever possible
• A simultaneous dependent approach differs from a simultaneous independent approach in that, the minimum distance between parallel runway centerlines may be reduced; there is no requirement for radar monitoring or advisories; and a staggered separation of aircraft on the adjacent final course is required
• A minimum of 1.0 NM radar separation (diagonal) is required between successive aircraft on the adjacent final approach course when runway centerlines are at least 2,500 feet but no more than 3,600 feet apart. A minimum of 1.5 NM radar separation (diagonal) is required between successive aircraft on the adjacent final approach course when runway centerlines are more than 3,600 feet but no more than 8,300 feet apart. When runway centerlines are more than 8,300 feet but no more than 9,000 feet apart a minimum of 2 NM diagonal radar separation is provided. Aircraft on the same final approach course within 10 NM of the runway end are provided a minimum of 3 NM radar separation, reduced to 2.5 NM in certain circumstances. In addition, a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical or a minimum of three miles radar separation is provided between aircraft during turn on to the parallel final approach course
• Whenever parallel approaches are in use, pilots are informed by ATC or via the ATIS that approaches to both runways are in use. The charted IAP also notes which runways may be used simultaneously. In addition, the radar controller will have the interphone capability of communicating with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been delegated to the tower
  • NOTE: ATC will not specifically identify these operations as being dependent when advertised on the ATIS
  • EXAMPLE: Simultaneous ILS Runway 19 right and ILS Runway 19 left in use
• At certain airports, simultaneous dependent approaches are permitted to runways spaced less than 2,500 feet apart. In this case, ATC will provide no less than the minimum authorized diagonal separation with the leader always arriving on the same runway. The trailing aircraft is permitted reduced diagonal separation, instead of the single runway separation normally utilized for runways spaced less than 2,500 feet apart. For wake turbulence mitigation reasons:
  • Reduced diagonal spacing is only permitted when certain aircraft wake category pairings exist; typically when the leader is either in the large or small wake turbulence category, and
  • All aircraft must descend on the glideslope from the altitude at which they were cleared for the approach during these operations
  • When reduced separation is authorized, the IAP briefing strip indicates that simultaneous operations require the use of vertical guidance and that the pilot should maintain last assigned altitude until intercepting the glideslope. No special pilot training is required to participate in these operations
    • Either simultaneous dependent approaches with reduced separation or SOIA PRM approaches may be conducted to Runways 28R and 28L at KSFO spaced 750 feet apart, depending on weather conditions and traffic volume. Pilots should use caution so as not to confuse these operations. Plan for SOIA procedures only when ATC assigns a PRM approach or the ATIS advertises PRM approaches are in use. KSFO is the only airport where both procedures are presently conducted
    • AIM, Paragraph 5-4-16, Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM Approaches and Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)

• 

Simultaneous Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches

• System:

  • An approach system permitting simultaneous approaches to parallel runways with centerlines separated by at least 4,300 feet. Separation between 4,300 and 9,000 feet (9,200' for airports above 5,000') utilizing NTZ final monitor controllers. Simultaneous independent approaches require NTZ radar monitoring to ensure separation between aircraft on the adjacent parallel approach course. Aircraft position is tracked by final monitor controllers who will issue instructions to aircraft observed deviating from the assigned final approach course. Staggered radar separation procedures are not utilized. Integral parts of a total system are radar, communications, ATC procedures, and ILS or other required airborne equipment. A chart note identifies that the approach is authorized for simultaneous use
  • When simultaneous operations are in use, it will be advertised on the ATIS. When advised that simultaneous approaches are in use, pilots must advise approach control immediately of malfunctioning or inoperative receivers, or if a simultaneous approach is not desired. Although non-precision minimums may be published, pilots must only use those procedures specifically authorized by chart note. For example, the chart note "LNAV NA during simultaneous operations," requires vertical guidance. When given a choice, pilots should always fly a precision approach whenever possible
    • ATC does not use the word independent or parallel when advertising these operations on the ATIS
    • Simultaneous ILS Runway 24 left and ILS Runway 24 right approaches in use

• Radar Services:

  • These services are provided for each simultaneous independent approach
  • During turn on to parallel final approach, aircraft are normally provided 3 miles radar separation or a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The assigned altitude must be maintained until intercepting the glidepath, unless cleared otherwise by ATC. Aircraft will not be vectored to intercept the final approach course at an angle greater than thirty degrees
    • Some simultaneous operations permit the aircraft to track an RNAV course beginning on downwind and continuing in a turn to intercept the final approach course. In this case, separation with the aircraft on the adjacent final approach course is provided by the monitor controller with reference to an NTZ
  • The final monitor controller will have the capability of overriding the tower controller on the tower frequency
  • Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring begins
  • Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn-on or to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ will be instructed to return to the correct final approach course immediately. The final monitor controller may cancel the approach clearance, and issue missed approach or other instructions to the deviating aircraft
    • PHRASEOLOGY: "(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE," or "(aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE"
  • If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the aircraft on the adjacent final approach course (if threatened), will be issued a breakout instruction
    • PHRASEOLOGY: "TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend) AND MAINTAIN (altitude)"
  • Radar monitoring will automatically be terminated when visual separation is applied, the aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in sight, or the aircraft is 1 NM or less from the runway threshold. Final monitor controllers will not advise pilots when radar monitoring is terminated
    • Simultaneous independent approaches conducted to runways spaced greater than 9,000 feet (or 9,200' at airports above 5,000') do not require an NTZ. However, from a pilot's perspective, the same alerts relative to deviating aircraft will be provided by ATC as are provided when an NTZ is being monitored. Pilots may not be aware as to whether or not an NTZ is being monitored

• 

Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM Approaches and Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)

• System:

  • 

  • PRM is an acronym for the high update rate Precision Runway Monitor surveillance system which is required to monitor the No Transgression Zone (NTZ) for specific parallel runway separations used to conduct simultaneous close parallel approaches. PRM is also published in the title as part of the approach name for IAPs used to conduct
  • Simultaneous Close Parallel approaches. "PRM" alerts pilots that specific airborne equipment, training, and procedures are applicable. Because Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM approaches are independent, the NTZ and normal operating zone (NOZ) airspace between the final approach courses is monitored by two monitor controllers, one for each approach course. The NTZ monitoring system (final monitor aid) consists of a high resolution ATC radar display with automated tracking software which provides monitor controllers with aircraft identification, position, speed, and a ten-second projected position, as well as visual and aural NTZ penetration alerts. A PRM high update rate surveillance sensor is a component of this system only for specific runway spacing
  • Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM approaches, whether conducted utilizing a high update rate PRM surveillance sensor or not, must meet all of the following requirements: pilot training,PRM in the approach title,NTZ monitoring utilizing a final monitor aid, radar display, publication of an AAUP, and use of a secondary PRM communications frequency. PRM approaches are depicted on a separate IAP titled (Procedure type) PRM Rwy XXX (Simultaneous Close Parallel or Close Parallel)
    • ATC does not use the word "independent" when advertising these operations on the ATIS
    • EXAMPLE: Simultaneous ILS PRM Runway 33 left and ILS PRM Runway 33 right approaches in use
    
    
    • The pilot may request to conduct a different type of PRM approach to the same runway other than the one that is presently being used; for example, RNAV instead of ILS. However, pilots must always obtain ATC approval to conduct a different type of approach. Also, in the event of the loss of ground-based NAVAIDS, the ATIS may advertise other types of PRM approaches to the affected runway or runways
    • The Attention All Users Page (AAUP) will address procedures for conducting PRM approaches

• Requirements and Procedures

  • Besides system requirements and pilot procedures as identified in subparagraph a1 above, all pilots must have completed special training before accepting a clearance to conduct a PRM approach
    • Pilot Training Requirement. Pilots must complete special pilot training, as outlined below, before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close parallel PRM approach
      • For operations under 14 CFR Parts 121, 129, and 135, pilots must comply with FAA-approved company training as identified in their Operations Specifications. Training includes the requirement for pilots to view the FAA training slide presentation, "Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot Procedures." Refer to https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm/ or search key words "FAA PRM" for additional information and to view or download the slide presentation
    • For operations under Part 91:
      • Pilots operating transport category aircraft must be familiar with PRM operations as contained in this section of the AIM. In addition, pilots operating transport category aircraft must view the slide presentation, "Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot Procedures." Refer to https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm/ or search key words "FAA PRM" for additional information and to view or download the slide presentation
      • Pilots not operating transport category aircraft must be familiar with PRM and SOIA operations as contained in this section of the AIM. The FAA strongly recommends that pilots not involved in transport category aircraft operations view the FAA training slide presentation, "Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot Procedures." Refer to https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm/ or search key words "FAA PRM" for additional information and to view or download the slide presentation
        • Depending on weather conditions, traffic volume, and the specific combination of runways being utilized for arrival operations, a runway may be used for different types of simultaneous operations, including closely spaced dependent or independent approaches. Use PRM procedures only when the ATIS advertises their use. For other types of simultaneous approaches

• ATC Directed Breakout:

  • An ATC directed "breakout" is defined as a vector off the final approach course of a threatened aircraft in response to another aircraft penetrating the NTZ

• Dual Communications:

  • The aircraft flying the PRM approach must have the capability of enabling the pilot/s to listen to two communications frequencies simultaneously. To avoid blocked transmissions, each runway will have two frequencies, a primary and a PRM monitor frequency. The tower controller will transmit on both frequencies. The monitor controller's transmissions, if needed, will override both frequencies. Pilots will ONLY transmit on the tower controller's frequency, but will listen to both frequencies. Select the PRM monitor frequency audio only when instructed by ATC to contact the tower. The volume levels should be set about the same on both radios so that the pilots will be able to hear transmissions on the PRM frequency if the tower is blocked. Site-specific procedures take precedence over the general information presented in this paragraph. Refer to the AAUP for applicable procedures at specific airports

• Radar Services:

  • During turn on to parallel final approach, aircraft will be provided 3 miles radar separation or a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The assigned altitude must be maintained until intercepting the glideslope/glidepath, unless cleared otherwise by ATC. Aircraft will not be vectored to intercept the final approach course at an angle greater than thirty degrees
  • The final monitor controller will have the capability of overriding the tower controller on the tower frequency as well as transmitting on the PRM frequency
  • Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring begins. Pilots will begin monitoring the secondary PRM frequency at that time (see Dual VHF Communications Required below)
  • To ensure separation is maintained, and in order to avoid an imminent situation during PRM approaches, pilots must immediately comply with monitor controller instructions
  • Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn or to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ will be instructed to return to the correct final approach course immediately. The final monitor controller may cancel the approach clearance, and issue missed approach or other instructions to the deviating aircraft
    • PHRASEOLOGY: "(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE," or "(Aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE."
  • If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the aircraft on the adjacent final approach course (if threatened) will be issued a breakout instruction
    • PHRASEOLOGY: "TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend) AND MAINTAIN (altitude)"
  • Radar monitoring will automatically be terminated when visual separation is applied, or the aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in sight or within 1 NM of the runway threshold. Final monitor controllers will not advise pilots when radar monitoring is terminated

• Attention All Users Page (AAUP):

  • 

  • At airports that conduct PRM operations, the AAUP informs pilots under the "General" section of information relative to all the PRM approaches published at a specific airport, and this section must be briefed in its entirety. Under the "Runway Specific" section, only items relative to the runway to be used for landing need be briefed. (See FIG 5-4-24.) A single AAUP is utilized for multiple PRM approach charts at the same airport, which are listed on the AAUP. The requirement for informing ATC if the pilot is unable to accept a PRM clearance is also presented. The "General" section of AAUP addresses the following:
    • Review of the procedure for executing a climbing or descending breakout;
    • Breakout phraseology beginning with the words, "Traffic Alert;"
    • Descending on the glideslope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions;
    • Briefing the PRM approach also satisfies the non-PRM approach briefing of the same type of approach to the same runway; and
    • Description of the dual communications procedure
  • The "Runway Specific" section of the AAUP addresses those issues which only apply to certain runway ends that utilize PRM approaches. There may be no Runway Specific procedures, a single item applicable to only one runway end, or multiple items for a single or multiple runway end/s [Figure 4]

Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach (SOIA)

• 

• SOIA is a procedure used to conduct simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than 3,000 feet, but at least 750 feet apart. The SOIA procedure utilizes a straight-in PRM approach to one runway, and a PRM offset approach with glideslope/glidepath to the adjacent runway. In SOIA operations, aircraft are paired, with the aircraft conducting the straight-in PRM approach always positioned slightly ahead of the aircraft conducting the offset PRM approach
• The straight-in PRM approach plates used in SOIA operations are identical to other straight-in PRM approach plates, with an additional note, which provides the separation between the two runways used for simultaneous SOIA approaches. The offset PRM approach plate displays the required notations for closely spaced approaches as well as depicts the visual segment of the approach
• Controllers monitor the SOIA PRM approaches in exactly the same manner as is done for other PRM approaches. The procedures and system requirements for SOIA PRM approaches are identical with those used for simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches until near the offset PRM approach missed approach point (MAP), where visual acquisition of the straight-in aircraft by the aircraft conducting the offset PRM approach occurs. Since SOIA PRM approaches are identical to other PRM approaches (except for the visual segment in the offset approach), an understanding of the procedures for conducting PRM approaches is essential before conducting a SOIA PRM operation
• In SOIA, the approach course separation (instead of the runway separation) meets established close parallel approach criteria. (See FIG 5-4-25 for the generic SOIA approach geometry.) A visual segment of the offset PRM approach is established between the offset MAP and the runway threshold. Aircraft transition in visual conditions from the offset course, beginning at the offset MAP, to align with the runway and can be stabilized by 500 feet above ground level (AGL) on the extended runway centerline. A cloud ceiling for the approach is established so that the aircraft conducting the offset approach has nominally at least 30 seconds or more to acquire the leading straight-in aircraft prior to reaching the offset MAP. If visual acquisition is not accomplished prior to crossing the offset MAP, a missed approach must be executed
• Flight Management System (FMS) coding of the offset RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches in a SOIA operation is different than other RNAV and GLS approach coding in that it does not match the initial missed approach procedure published on the charted IAP. In the SOIA design of the offset approach, lateral course guidance terminates at the fictitious threshold point (FTP), which is an extension of the final approach course beyond the offset MAP to a point near the runway threshold. The FTP is designated in the approach coding as the MAP so that vertical guidance is available to the pilot to the runway threshold, just as vertical guidance is provided by the offset LDA glideslope. No matter what type of offset approach is being conducted, reliance on lateral guidance is discontinued at the charted MAP and replaced by visual maneuvering to accomplish runway alignment
• As a result of this approach coding, when executing a missed approach at and after passing the charted offset MAP, a heading must initially be flown (either hand-flown or using autopilot "heading mode") before engaging LNAV. If the pilot engages LNAV immediately, the aircraft may continue to track toward the FTP instead of commencing a turn toward the missed approach holding fix. Notes on the charted IAP and in the AAUP make specific reference to this procedure
• Some FMSs do not code waypoints inside of the FAF as part of the approach. Therefore, the depicted MAP on the charted IAP may not be included in the offset approach coding. Pilots utilizing those FMSs may identify the location of the waypoint by noting its distance from the FTP as published on the charted IAP. In those same FMSs, the straight-in SOIA approach will not display a waypoint inside the PFAF. The same procedures may be utilized to identify an uncoded waypoint. In this case, the location is determined by noting its distance from the runway waypoint or using an authorized distance as published on the charted IAP
• Because the FTP is coded as the MAP, the FMS map display will depict the initial missed approach course as beginning at the FTP. This depiction does not match the charted initial missed approach procedure on the IAP. Pilots are reminded that charted IAP guidance is to be followed, not the map display. Once the aircraft completes the initial turn when commencing a missed approach, the remainder of the procedure coding is standard and can be utilized as with any other IAP

• SOIA Definitions:

  • SAP:

    • The stabilized approach point is a design point along the extended centerline of the intended landing runway on the glide slope/glide path at 500 feet above the runway threshold elevation. It is used to verify a sufficient distance is provided for the visual maneuver after the offset course approach DA to permit the pilots to conform to approved, stabilized approach criteria. The SAP is not published on the IAP

  • Offset Course DA:

    • The point along the LDA, or other offset course, where the course separation with the adjacent ILS, or other straight-in course, reaches the minimum distance permitted to conduct closely spaced approaches. Typically that minimum distance will be 3,000 feet without the use of high update radar; with high update radar, course separation of less than 3,000 ft may be used when validated by a safety study. The altitude of the glide slope/glide path at that point determines the offset course approach decision altitude and is where the NTZ terminates. Maneuvering inside the DA is done in visual conditions

  • Visual Segment Angle:

    • Angle, as determined by the SOIA design tool, formed by the extension of the straight segment of the calculated flight track (between the offset course MAP/DA and the SAP) and the extended runway centerline. The size of the angle is dependent on the aircraft approach categories (Category D or only selected categories/speeds) that are authorized to use the offset course approach and the spacing between the runways

  • Visibility:

    • Distance from the offset course approach DA to runway threshold in statute mile

  • Procedure:

    • The aircraft on the offset course approach must see the runway-landing environment and, if ATC has advised that traffic on the straight-in approach is a factor, the offset course approach aircraft must visually acquire the straight-in approach aircraft and report it in sight to ATC prior to reaching the DA for the offset course approach

  • CC:

    • The Clear of Clouds point is the position on the offset final approach course where aircraft first operate in visual meteorological conditions below the ceiling, when the actual weather conditions are at, or near, the minimum ceiling for SOIA operations. Ceiling is defined by the Aeronautical Information Manual
• SOIA PRM approaches utilize the same dual communications procedures as do other PRM approaches
  • At KSFO, pilots conducting SOIA operations select the monitor frequency audio when communicating with the final radar controller, not the tower controller as is customary. In this special case, the monitor controller's transmissions, if required, override the final controller's frequency. This procedure is addressed on the AAUP
  • SOIA utilizes the same AAUP format as do other PRM approaches. The minimum weather conditions that are required are listed. Because of the more complex nature of instructions for conducting SOIA approaches, the "Runway Specific" items are more numerous and lengthy
  • Examples of SOIA offset runway specific notes:
    • Aircraft must remain on the offset course until passing the offset MAP prior to maneuvering to align with the centerline of the offset approach runway
    • Pilots are authorized to continue past the offset MAP to align with runway centerline when:
      • The straight-in approach traffic is in sight and is expected to remain in sight,
      • ATC has been advised that "traffic is in sight." (ATC is not required to acknowledge this transmission),
      • The runway environment is in sight. Otherwise, a missed approach must be executed. Between the offset MAP and the runway threshold, pilots conducting the offset PRM approach must not pass the straight-in aircraft and are responsible for separating themselves visually from traffic conducting the straight-in PRM approach to the adjacent runway, which means maneuvering the aircraft as necessary to avoid that traffic until landing, and providing wake turbulence avoidance, if applicable. Pilots maintaining visual separation should advise ATC, as soon as practical, if visual contact with the aircraft conducting the straight-in PRM approach is lost and execute a missed approach unless otherwise instructed by ATC
  • Examples of SOIA straight-in runway specific notes:
    • To facilitate the offset aircraft in providing wake mitigation, pilots should descend on, not above, the glideslope/glidepath
    • Conducting the straight-in approach, pilots should be aware that the aircraft conducting the offset approach will be approaching from the right/left rear and will be operating in close proximity to the straight-in aircraft
• Recap:
  • The following are differences between widely spaced simultaneous approaches (at least 4,300 feet between the runway centerlines) and Simultaneous PRM close parallel approaches which are of importance to the pilot:
    • Runway Spacing. Prior to PRM simultaneous close parallel approaches, most ATC-directed breakouts were the result of two aircraft in-trail on the same final approach course getting too close together. Two aircraft going in the same direction did not mandate quick reaction times. With PRM closely spaced approaches, two aircraft could be alongside each other, navigating on courses that are separated by less than 4,300 feet and as close as 3,000 feet. In the unlikely event that an aircraft "blunders" off its course and makes a worst case turn of 30 degrees toward the adjacent final approach course, closing speeds of 135 feet per second could occur that constitute the need for quick reaction. A blunder has to be recognized by the monitor controller, and breakout instructions issued to the endangered aircraft. The pilot will not have any warning that a breakout is imminent because the blundering aircraft will be on another frequency. It is important that, when a pilot receives breakout instructions, the assumption is made that a blundering aircraft is about to (or has penetrated the NTZ) and is heading toward his/her approach course. The pilot must initiate a breakout as soon as safety allows. While conducting PRM approaches, pilots must maintain an increased sense of awareness in order to immediately react to an ATC (breakout) instruction and maneuver (as instructed by ATC) away from a blundering aircraft
    • Communications. Dual VHF communications procedures should be carefully followed. One of the assumptions made that permits the safe conduct of PRM approaches is that there will be no blocked communications
    • Hand-flown Breakouts. The use of the autopilot is encouraged while flying a PRM approach, but the autopilot must be disengaged in the rare event that a breakout is issued. Simulation studies of breakouts have shown that a hand-flown breakout can be initiated consistently faster than a breakout performed using the autopilot
    • TCAS. The ATC breakout instruction is the primary means of conflict resolution. TCAS, if installed, provides another form of conflict resolution in the unlikely event other separation standards would fail. TCAS is not required to conduct a closely spaced approach
      • The TCAS provides only vertical resolution of aircraft conflicts, while the ATC breakout instruction provides both vertical and horizontal guidance for conflict resolutions. Pilots should always immediately follow the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA),whenever it is received. Should a TCAS RA be received before, during, or after an ATC breakout instruction is issued, the pilot should follow the RA,even if it conflicts with the climb/descent portion of the breakout maneuver. If following an RA requires deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot must advise ATC as soon as practical. While following an RA, it is extremely important that the pilot also comply with the turn portion of the ATC breakout instruction unless the pilot determines safety to be factor. Adhering to these procedures assures the pilot that acceptable "breakout" separation margins will always be provided, even in the face of a normal procedural or system failure

Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches

• Where approved, ATC may conduct instrument approaches simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways having an included angle from 15 to 100 degrees
• The basic concept requires that dedicated, separate standard instrument approach procedures be developed for each converging runway included. These approaches can be identified by the letter "V" in the title; for example, "ILS V Rwy 17 (CONVERGING)". Missed Approach Points must be at least 3 miles apart and missed approach procedures ensure that missed approach protected airspace does not overlap
• Other requirements are: radar availability, non-intersecting final approach courses, precision approach capability for each runway and, if runways intersect, controllers must be able to apply visual separation as well as intersecting runway separation criteria. Intersecting runways also require minimums of at least 700 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility. Straight in approaches and landings must be made
• Whenever simultaneous converging approaches are in use, aircraft will be informed by the controller as soon as feasible after initial contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller will have direct communications capability with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been delegated to the tower

Pilot Responsibilities:

• Be aware that the controller issues clearance for approach based only on known traffic
• Follow the procedures as shown on the IAP, including all restrictive notations, such as:
  • Procedure not authorized at night;
  • Approach not authorized when local area altimeter not available;
  • Procedure not authorized when control tower not in operation;
  • Procedure not authorized when glide slope not used;
  • Straight-in minimums not authorized at night; etc.
  • Radar required; or
  • The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruction clearance and pilots should not descend below the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position to make final descent for landing. Sound judgment and knowledge of the pilot's and the aircraft's capabilities are the criteria for determining the exact maneuver in each instance since airport design and the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be considered
• Upon receipt of an approach clearance while on an unpublished route or being radar vectored:
  • Complies with the minimum altitude for IFR; and
  • Maintains the last assigned altitude until established on a segment of a published route or IAP, at which time published altitudes apply

Controller Responsibilities:

• Issues an approach clearance based on known traffic
• Issues an IFR approach clearance only after the aircraft is established on a segment of published route or IAP, or assigns an appropriate altitude for the aircraft to maintain until so established

IFR Approaches:

• When operating in accordance with an IFR clearance and ATC approves a change to the advisory frequency, make an expeditious change to the CTAF and employ the recommended traffic advisory procedures

Ground Vehicle Operation:

• Airport ground vehicles equipped with radios should monitor the CTAF frequency when operating on the airport movement area and remain clear of runways/taxiways being used by aircraft.
• Radio transmissions from ground vehicles should be confined to safety-related matters.

Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems:

• Whenever possible, the CTAF will be used to control airport lighting systems at airports without operating control towers. This eliminates the need for pilots to change frequencies to turn the lights on and allows a continuous listening watch on a single frequency. The CTAF is published on the instrument approach chart and in other appropriate aeronautical information publications