Taxiing

Aircraft must taxi, that is conducting surface movement under its own power, as part of ground operations in support of flight.

Taxiing

Introduction to Taxiing

  • After starting the aircraft and completing the required checklists, the pilot is ready to begin taxiing.
  • Taxiing is the movement of an aircraft on the ground under its own power.
  • Pilots primarily use the rudder and brakes to control taxiing and must also account for the effects of wind.
  • Moving around an airport requires coordination and any applicable clearances.
  • Pilots follow taxi procedures when moving around an airport’s surface.
  • While controlling the aircraft remains the priority, pilots must also complete applicable checklist items before or after flight.
  • Although taxiing may seem straightforward, mastering the art of taxiing involves applying best practices for safe, smooth, and efficient aircraft handling.
  • Once your engine has started you must be aware of what you're doing and keep a visual scan, your "flight" has begun
    • It may be required initially to tow the aircraft before engines are started to be safe
  • Reinforce your understanding of Taxiing by completing the knowledge quiz and interactive scenario, comparing your performance with the applicable Airman Certification Standards, and reviewing the topic summary before moving on.
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Taxiing

Taxiing Key Highlights

  • Taxiing involves moving the aircraft safely on the ground using engine power, braking, and steering controls.
  • During taxi, pilots must maintain situational awareness and follow airport markings, signs, lights, and air traffic control instructions.
  • Taxi at a speed that allows the aircraft to stop safely without excessive braking or loss of directional control.
  • Wind correction control inputs are necessary during taxi operations to prevent wind from lifting or damaging aircraft surfaces.
  • Pilots commonly use nosewheel steering, differential braking, or tailwheel steering to maneuver aircraft on the ground.
  • Runway incursions and taxiway confusion are significant hazards during ground operations, especially at unfamiliar airports.
  • During taxi, pilots should maintain sterile cockpit discipline and visually scan for aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.
  • Taxi checklists and proper communication procedures help pilots move safely and efficiently on the ground.
  • Night operations, low visibility, and complex airport layouts increase taxi workload and operational risk.
  • Understanding taxiing procedures improves ground handling proficiency, situational awareness, and overall flight safety.
Taxiing

Taxi Preflight Planning

  • Airport layouts share common features, but each airport’s layout is different.
  • Review the airport diagram to identify expected taxi routes from your location.
  • Pay attention to airport hot spots.
  • If you are unfamiliar with the airfield, consult pilots familiar with it or airport operations personnel before your flight.
  • Review NOTAMs for updated procedures, outages, or taxiway closures.
Taxiing

Flight Deck Procedures

  • Before taxiing, organize charts, kneeboards, lights, and other needed equipment for easy access during taxi, takeoff, and climb, when events can occur rapidly.
Taxiing

Brake/Steering Check Procedures

  • Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and brakes.
    • The pilot applies rudder pedal pressure in the desired direction of turn and uses power and braking as needed to control taxi speed.
    • After reaching full pedal deflection, the pilot may apply braking as needed to tighten the turn.
  • When beginning to taxi, check braking effectiveness.
    • Release the brakes and add power as needed to start the airplane moving forward.
    • Reduce power to idle and press the top of each rudder pedal in turn to verify that both brakes respond properly.
      • Monitor the area ahead, behind, and to both sides, especially on a congested ramp.
        • Checking brakes individually is preferred, but they may be checked together when necessary.
      • Apply brake pressure sufficient enough to cause the airplane to abruptly dip, or to a full stop if desired.
    • If braking action is unsatisfactory, shut down the engine immediately.
      • Consider looping the aircraft on the taxiway if it cannot be stopped.
  • To check steering, press the rudder pedal in the desired direction of turn.
    • Verify that the airplane responds properly to the rudder pedal input.
  • Check braking and steering from each pilot position where those controls may be used, including both seats when applicable.
  • More engine power may be needed to start moving or begin a turn than to keep the airplane moving.
    • After using additional power to start moving, immediately reduce the throttle to prevent excessive acceleration.
  • Stopping:
    • Hold rudder pedal pressure in the direction of the turn until just before reaching the desired direction.
      • Then release rudder pressure or apply opposite pressure as needed.
    • Stop with the nosewheel pointed straight ahead to relieve side loads and make it easier to resume forward movement.
    • Even nosewheel-equipped airplanes have a tendency to weathervane during crosswind taxiing.
    • This tendency is less pronounced than in tailwheel airplanes because the main wheels are behind the airplane’s center of gravity, and friction between the nosewheel and the ground helps resist weathervaning.
    • The rudder pedals control nosewheel steering, and rudder pedal pressure alone is normally sufficient to correct for a crosswind.
    • Once the airplane is moving, downwind taxiing usually requires less engine power because the wind pushes the airplane forward.
    • When taxiing downwind, keep engine power to a minimum to control speed and avoid overheating the brakes.
      • Apply brakes as needed to control speed, but avoid continuously riding the brakes.
      • Avoid resting your toes on the brakes, which can cause unintentional braking.
      • Except during sharp turns at low speed, reduce the throttle to idle before applying the brakes.
Taxiing

Taxi Instructions/Clearances

  • Obtain a clearance before moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area when the Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is operating.
  • The movement area is normally described in local bulletins issued by the airport manager or air traffic control tower.
    • These bulletins may be available at Flight Service Stations (FSSs), fixed-base operator offices, air carrier offices, and operations offices.
  • When the tower is operating, obtain a clearance before taxiing on a runway, taking off, or landing.
  • Air Traffic Control (ATC) will specify the assigned takeoff runway, issue taxi instructions, and provide any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances needed along the taxi route.
    • Taxi instructions alone do not authorize entering or crossing the assigned departure runway at any point.
    • To prevent misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC does not use the word “cleared” when authorizing aircraft to taxi.
  • ATC will issue an explicit clearance for each runway crossing.
  • ATC will issue hold short instructions when a pilot must stop before a runway approach/departure hold area (Runway XX APPCH/Runway XX DEP) or an Instrument Landing System (ILS) holding position (see Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Areas).

  • Relaying an ATC Clearance:

    • Airport traffic controllers relay Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) clearances to pilots as shown in the following example:
      • Tower: "Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand"
      • Aircraft: "Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand"
    • The ground controller normally relays ATC IFR clearances but may direct pilots at busy airports to contact clearance delivery on a designated frequency.
    • Clearance delivery does not monitor or control traffic movement.
Taxiing

Taxi Checklists

  • When the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) specifies a taxi checklist, complete all required items.
  • Even without specific checklist items, taxiing provides an opportunity to verify basic system operation and cross-check flight instruments.
    • Check the brakes immediately after the airplane begins rolling to verify its ability to stop before increasing speed.
    • The airspeed indicator should read at or near zero, depending on taxi speed, wind speed and direction, and the instrument’s sensitivity at low airspeeds.
    • The attitude indicator should show no more than 5° of bank, relatively level pitch (depending on the airplane’s attitude), and no warning flags.
    • Verify that the altimeter has the correct setting and indicates the proper elevation within prescribed limits.
    • The turn indicator should show the correct direction of turn, with the ball moving toward the outside of the turn and no warning flags.
    • Set and cross-check the directional gyro against the magnetic compass, then verify that it indicates the direction of taxi.
      • The heading indicator should not precess more than 3° in 15 minutes.
    • The vertical speed indicator should read zero.
  • These checks apply to aircraft with conventional mechanical instruments or glass cockpits.
  • Do not perform checklist items while taxiing if they prevent you from safely operating the aircraft.
Taxiing

Taxi Procedures

  • From the Flight Deck – Hold Short
  • Runway Taxiway Markings vs. Intersecting Runways
    Runway Taxiway Markings vs. Intersecting Runways

  • Taxi For Takeoff:

    1. Complete all checklists required before taxi.
    2. Listen to the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), or Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) broadcast, as appropriate.
      • Consider setting the heading bug or course indicator to show the direction the wind is coming from.
    3. Contact clearance delivery, as appropriate.
    4. Contact ground control or make the appropriate radio calls on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF):
      • State your aircraft identification, location, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the point of first intended landing.
        • Pilot: "Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, I-F-R to Chicago"
      • When local procedures request it, include the appropriate ATIS code or report the relevant AWOS/ASOS weather information.
      • Where FSS airport advisory service is available, a departing pilot should state the direction of takeoff, report whether they have the automated weather, and request airport advisory or information service.
      • Consider setting the heading bug or course indicator to show the takeoff direction.
    5. Ground control will respond with taxi instructions:
      • ATC will specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and then state any required hold short instructions.
      • A taxi instruction authorizes movement along the assigned route but does not authorize the aircraft to enter or cross any runway unless ATC explicitly issues a runway-crossing clearance.
      • “Hold short” means do not cross the specified holding position until ATC authorizes you to proceed.
      • ATC will issue an explicit clearance for every runway crossing.
        • Ground: "Beechcraft one three one five niner, Washington ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and Delta, hold short of runway three three left"
          • Closed runways still require an explicit ATC clearance to cross.
    6. Acknowledge the taxi clearance:
      • When taxi instructions are received from the controller, pilots should always read back:
        • Runway assignment
        • Any clearance to enter a specific runway.
        • Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait.
      • Controllers are required to request a read-back of runway hold short assignment when it is not received from the pilot/vehicle.
      • Aircraft: "Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, runway two seven, hold short of runway three three left"
      • The control tower also issues bulletins describing areas where they cannot provide service due to non-visibility or other reasons.
        • This is usually done through ATIS/AWOS remarks
    7. Begin taxi, monitoring ground frequency until into the run-up area.
      • Conduct brake/steering checks.
    8. Check the heading indicator to ensure the reading has not precessed more than 3° in 15 minutes

  • Taxiing after Landing:

    • Exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by ATC.
      • At airports with an operating control tower, pilots should not stop or reverse course on the runway without first obtaining ATC approval.
      • All parts of the aircraft must be across the hold short line to be considered off the runway
        • Once all parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding position markings, the pilot must hold unless further instructions have been issued by ATC.
      • Before landing on closely spaced parallel runways, brief the exit geometry, absence of a center-taxiway buffer, adjacent runway holding-position location, safe exit speed, restricted view of the parallel runway, and a contingency for a late runway change.
      • Do not treat an acute-angled exit as a conventional high-speed exit; reduce to a controllable speed that permits a complete stop before the adjacent runway holding-position markings, especially on a contaminated surface.
      • Delay nonessential after-landing checklist items until the aircraft is stopped or clear of the parallel-runway environment; in a multi-crew cockpit, the monitoring pilot should track position, scan for signs and markings, and call out proximity to the parallel runway.
    • Do not exit the landing runway onto another runway unless authorized by ATC.
    • Contact ground when directed by tower
      • When requesting taxi instructions, state your aircraft identification, location, and that you request taxi instructions.
    • Runway Taxiway Markings vs. Intersecting Runways
      Runway Taxiway Markings vs. Intersecting Runways

  • Taxiing for Reasons Other Than Takeoff or Landing:

    • When issuing taxi instructions to any point other than an assigned takeoff runway, ATC will specify the point to taxi to, issue taxi instructions, and state any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway.
      • ATC is required to obtain a read-back from the pilot of all runway hold short instructions.
Taxiing

Taxi Fundamentals/Operating Practices

  • An essential requirement in conducting safe taxi operations is where the pilot maintains situational awareness.
    • Situational awareness starts with the study of the airport diagram to include hot spots and hold shorts
    • The airport diagram should always be nearby for reference while on the surface, which requires making it available before engine start and before landing
  • Depending on the airport, parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be controlled
  • The pilot should make themselves familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment.
    • Especially at unfamiliar airports, review, and have available the Airport diagram to maintain situational awareness.
    • If routing is expected to be complex, consider listening to ground control, if able, on liveATC.net or with the use of a handset [Amazon].
  • The pilot must be vigilant of the entire area around the airplane to ensure that the airplane clears all obstructions.
    • If, at any time, there is doubt about a safe clearance from an object, the pilot should stop the airplane and check the clearance.
    • Use wingtip and nearby-obstruction shadows in sunlight, or close-up navigation-light reflections at night or under overcast conditions, as supplemental clearance cues; if clearance remains uncertain, stop, shut down, and inspect before continuing.
    • It may be necessary to have the airplane towed or physically moved by a ground crew.
  • When taxiing, the pilot's eyes should be looking outside the airplane scanning from side to side while looking both near and far to assess routing and potential conflicts, especially at intersections.
    • It is helpful to use internal callouts to accomplish this task: "Cleared left, forward and right, going [Left/Forward/Right]"
  • A safe taxiing speed must be maintained.
    • The primary requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the ability to recognize any potential hazards in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and when desired, without undue reliance on the brakes.
  • The pilot should accurately place the aircraft centered on the taxiway at all times.
    • Some taxiways have above ground taxi lights and signage that could impact the airplane or propellers if the pilot does not exercise accurate control.
  • When taxiing, the pilot must slow down before attempting a turn.
    • Sharp high-speed turns place undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may result in tire damage or an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.
    • Swerves are most likely to occur when turning from a downwind heading toward an upwind heading.
    • In moderate to high-wind conditions, the airplane may weathervane increasing the swerving tendency.
  • Good operating practice dictates that pilots acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or takeoff clearances unless there is some misunderstanding, at which time the pilot should query the controller until the clearance is understood.
    • NOTE: Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot a read-back of all runway hold short instructions.
    • When approaching a runway, treat the red runway holding position sign as a stop sign: do not cross the associated holding position marking without ATC clearance.
  • Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should monitor only assigned ATC communications after being cleared onto the active runway for departure. Single pilot aircraft should not monitor other than ATC communications until flight from Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area is completed. This same procedure should be practiced from after receipt of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi activities are complete. Proper effective scanning for other aircraft, surface vehicles, or other objects should be continuously exercised in all cases
  • At those airports where the U.S. Government operates the control tower and ATC has authorized noncompliance with the requirement for two-way radio communications while operating within the Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, or at those airports where the U.S. Government does not operate the control tower and radio communications cannot be established, pilots must obtain a clearance by visual light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and prior to takeoff and landing
  • Leaning the mixture could be helpful to save fuel, avoid fouled spark plugs, and reduce emissions when using 100LL during long taxi's or long waits for takeoff
    • If leaning, always remember to move the mixture back to rich before takeoff
    • Lean the mixture enough for ground operation that advancing to full throttle will cause the engine to falter if you forget to enrich the mixture before takeoff.

  • Taxi Speeds:

    • Taxi speed is not explicitly regulated; however, common sense must apply so as not to operate in a "careless or reckless manner" (FAR 91.13):
      • While on a ramp, pilots should not taxi any faster than one can walk
      • While on a taxiway, pilots should not taxi faster than one can jog
      • When entering a turn, be mindful of the stress you are placing on the landing gear as you turn
      • Care must be exercised when taxiing at night, in low visibility, or toward the sun to maintain situational awareness as to the aircraft's location and what is around it
        • This means moving at half the speed using twice the caution
      • While numbers could be attached to taxi speeds for reference, it is best practice to keep your head up, use reason, and err on the side of "slow is smooth"

  • Compensating for Airport Slopes:

    • Runways are generally flat surfaces however small changes in elevation will impact the speed at which the aircraft moves
      • You will require more power uphill and less downhill
      • Every turn you make will impact the amount of power required to some degree
      • It is unlikely however, that you'll need to adjust than around 100 revolutions per minute (RPM) to overcome to effects of slope

  • Compensating for Surface Conditions:

    • Avoid taxiing over noticeable surface depressions that could place undue stress on the landing gear or damage the wheel pants, if installed.
    • If taxiing in cold weather conditions such as snow, ice, or slush, avoid taxiing over contaminated surfaces, if possible.
      • If slush or ice is suspected to have contaminated the landing gear, consider touch-and-go's to clear ice from frozen gear.
    • Taxi slower when objects on the surface have the potential to be kicked up onto the aircraft
      • Taxi speed is especially important in cold weather operations the aircraft may not only lose traction, but could kick up slush or water onto wings and control surfaces, increasing weight and possibly inhibiting range of motion
  • Rundown Feeling
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Crosswind Taxiing Technique
    Airplane Flying Handbook, Crosswind Taxiing Technique
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Quartering Tailwind
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Quartering Tailwind
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Downwind Taxi
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Downwind Taxi
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Quartering Headwind
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Quartering Headwind
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Surface Area Most Affected By Wind
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Surface Area Most Affected By Wind

  • Compensating for Wind during Taxi:

    • When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind conditions, the aileron and elevator control surfaces have minimal effect on directional control of the airplane.
      • These controls should not be considered steering devices and should be held in a neutral position.
    • The introduction of wind, however, impacts aircraft controllability during taxi, even at low speeds
    • The presence of moderate to strong winds and/or a strong propeller slipstream makes use of the aileron and elevator necessary to maintain control of the aircraft's roll/pitch while taxiing. []
      • This becomes apparent when considering the lifting action that may be created on the horizontal tail surfaces by either of those two factors.

    • Wind Indicators:

      • To assess the wind direction and speed, visual indicators are generally provided at airports for pilots to reference
      • Windsocks are the most ubiquitous indicator on wind direction and intensity
      • Other indicators include flags, smoke,, bodies of water, pilot reports, observing aircraft crosswind techniques, etc.
      • AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports are useful references, but their wind information may not precisely represent conditions on every part of the airport.

    • Elevator Usage:

      • The elevator control in nosewheel-type airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while in tailwheel-type airplanes, it should be held in the full aft position to hold the tail down.
      • When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator should be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind aileron, DOWN. []
      • Since the wind is striking the airplane from behind, these control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get under the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.

    • Aileron Usage:

      • When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on the upwind side (the side that the wind is coming from) tends to be lifted by the wind unless the aileron control is held in that direction (upwind aileron UP). []
      • Moving the aileron into the UP position reduces the effect of the wind striking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action.
      • This control movement also causes the downwind aileron to be placed in the DOWN position, thus a small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing, further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing to rise.
      • Remember the mnemonic: diving away and level into the wind.
        • With a quartering tailwind, position the ailerons away from the wind and the elevator down; with a quartering headwind, position the ailerons into the wind and keep the elevator neutral in a tricycle-gear airplane or aft in a tailwheel airplane.
    • Downwind taxiing will usually require less power and may require none, but do not ride the brakes. []
    • The upwind wing will tend to be lifted by the wind unless the aileron control is held in that direction
    • Weathervaning may occur as the wind effects a large portion of the aircrafts side
      • This is more apparent in a tail wheel aircraft given the wheel is farther behind the center of gravity and comparatively farther from the main gear
    • Remember also that turns will require change the direction the wind is coming from relative to the aircraft, requiring a change in control positions.

    • Wind Impacts:

      • The more surface area the aircraft exposes to the wind, the more it is affected. []
    • Airplane Flying Handbook, Crosswind Taxiing Technique
      Airplane Flying Handbook, Crosswind Taxiing Technique
    • Airplane Flying Handbook, Quartering Tailwind
      Airplane Flying Handbook,
      Quartering Tailwind
    • Airplane Flying Handbook, Downwind Taxi
      Airplane Flying Handbook,
      Downwind Taxi
    • Airplane Flying Handbook, Quartering Headwind
      Airplane Flying Handbook,
      Quartering Headwind
    • Airplane Flying Handbook, Surface Area Most Affected By Wind
      Airplane Flying Handbook,
      Surface Area Most Affected By Wind

  • Taxi Technique:

    • It will require a large amount of power to initially move the aircraft
      • As the aircraft starts to move, power must be retarded, possibly as far back as idle, to prevent continued acceleration
    • Steer with rudders, keeping your feet over, but not on, the breaks
    • Riding the brakes will reduce their lifespan and could render them less effective
      • Many high performance aircraft can produce enough thrust that riding the brakes may be necessary to keep the aircraft from speeding up; brake judiciously
    • Jet aircraft can be dangerous when exhaust is swept across an area
    • Reduce the power to idle in a turn, but remember an aircraft stopped in a turn takes a lot of power to get moving again
      • Always execute good "tail pipe courtesy"
Taxiing

Taxi Operations During Low Visibility

  • SMGCS (Surface Movement Guidance and Control System)
  • Pilots and aircraft operators should be constantly aware that during certain low visibility conditions the movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may not be visible to the tower controller.
    • This may prevent visual confirmation of an aircraft's adherence to taxi instructions.
  • Notify the controller immediately when difficulties are encountered or at the first indication of becoming disoriented.
    • Pilots should proceed with extreme caution when taxiing toward the sun.
    • When vision difficulties are encountered pilots should immediately inform the controller.
    • Treat snow-covered airport surfaces as a low-visibility taxi hazard because snow may obscure taxiway signs, pavement markings, and surface boundaries; taxi slowly, verify position frequently, and request progressive taxi instructions whenever orientation is uncertain.
  • Advisory Circular 120-57, Low Visibility Operations Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, commonly known as LVOSMGCS (pronounced "LVO SMIGS") describes an adequate example of a low visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR) visibility conditions. These plans, which affect aircrew and vehicle operators, may incorporate additional lighting, markings, and procedures to control airport surface traffic. They will be addressed at two levels; operations less than 1,200 feet RVR to 500 feet RVR and operations less than 500 feet RVR.
  • When low visibility conditions exist, pilots should focus their entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving. Checklists and nonessential communication should be withheld until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set

  • Taxi Operations at Night:

    • Care must be exercised when taxiing at night, in low visibility, or toward the sun to maintain situational awareness as to the aircraft's location and what is around it
      • This means moving at half the speed using twice the caution
    • Taxi/landing lights shall be utilized to the maximum extent possible at night except to avoid blinding another pilot
      • The use of takeoffs-and-landings/taxi lights is an effective means of illuminating surface hazards during taxi movements at night and alerting all concerned of an aircraft's presence/position in flight
    • Lights may be turned off under certain conditions whereby safety is still the primary focus
      • Examples would be when taxiing toward or yielding too other aircraft or in a ramp setting with adequate ambient lighting
    • FAR 91.209 has specific guidance as to lighting requirements
    • Note hand/arm signals at night, while similar to day, are different
Taxiing

Progressive Taxi

  • If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi instructions which include step-by-step routing directions
  • Progressive instructions may also be issued if the controller deems it necessary due to traffic or field conditions (for example, construction or closed taxiways)
  • The need for progressive taxi can be mitigated by proper preflight planning and having airport diagrams handy
Taxiing

Regulation

  • Taxi/landing lights shall be utilized to the maximum extent possible at night except to avoid blinding another pilot
    • The use of takeoffs-and-landings/taxi lights is an effective means of illuminating surface hazards during taxi movements at night and alerting all concerned of an aircraft's presence/position in flight
  • Lights may be turned off under certain conditions whereby safety is still the primary focus
    • Examples would be when taxiing toward or yielding too other aircraft or in a ramp setting with adequate ambient lighting
  • FAR 91.209 has specific guidance as to lighting requirements
Taxiing

Communications

  • Low visibility taxi plans address operations below 1,200 feet RVR down to 500 feet RVR, and operations below 500 feet RVR.
  • Do not switch frequencies while taxiing, in case ground needs to contact you
  • Auto-switch tower when approaching the hold short to monitor traffic
  • If you have just cleared a runway and are looking to taxi, call with intentions as appropriate
    • ATC: "[Agency] Ground, [Callsign], clear of [Runway] at [Location], taxi to [Location]"
Taxiing

Runway Incursions

  • A runway incursion is any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft
  • Runway incursions are often the result of:
    • Failure to comply with ATC instructions.
    • Lack of airport familiarity.
    • Nonconformance with standard operating procedures.
  • Pilot proficiency, preflight planning, taxi procedures, runway confusion, SA, and the use of aircraft and airport lights are all challenges that, if not properly managed, lead to deviations
  • Adverse weather, technology limitation, and complex airport designs are additional challenges that contribute to runway incursions
    • Recognize the special incursion risk where an acute-angled runway exit leads toward a closely spaced parallel runway: the pilot may have to clear the landing runway with the aircraft's tail while stopping only a short distance later at the adjacent runway's holding position, and angled markings and restricted sightlines can make that distance difficult to judge.
  • The FAA recommends pilots maintain proficiency, plan each flight, and use set procedures, such as:
    • Passenger briefings.
    • Checklist usage.
    • Navigation and communication (NAV/COM) setup prior to taxi.
    • Copying clearances.
    • Sterile cockpit practices.

  • Runway Incursion Mitigation Program:

    • The FAA maintains the Runway Incursion Mitigation (RIM) Program to support safety education and accident prevention.
    • The program identifies hazardous set-ups such as geometry and looks for fixes, or at the least, provides notification when an area contains hazards.
      • Recognize that controller surface-safety technologies provide additional defenses against runway incursions but do not replace pilot compliance with clearances, hold-short instructions, airport markings, and visual verification.
    • Guidance like "hot spots" is a tool to communicate with pilots of areas that meet criteria to deem hazardous.
Taxiing

Standard Taxi Routes

  • Standard Taxi Routes (STRs) provide a standard, predictable taxi route from an origination point to a termination point on the airport movement area.
    • The use of STRs helps reduce frequency congestion and streamline taxi procedures.
    • STRs may be available at certain airports.
    • Absent an STR Letter of Agreement (LOA), issuance of an STR will be at the request of the pilot and discretion of ATC.
    • STRs used under an LOA are issued by ATC and are not required to be requested by the pilot.
  • STRs are available via two methods, (LOA) or publicly−available via the Domestic Notices website: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/domesticnotices/.
  • An LOA for STRs will be revised for updates and changes, including cancellation on an as−needed basis with the operator.
    • It is the responsibility of the operator to distribute changes to their flight crews.
  • An STR may be requested by a pilot or assigned at the discretion of ATC to the pilot of an operator with an LOA STR.
    • It is the responsibility of the pilot to request a full taxi clearance if not fully familiar with the STR.
  • A Letter to Airmen (LTA) will be issued by airport traffic control towers to announce availability, updates, cancelation, or changes of publicly−available STRs with appropriate updates to the Domestic Notices website.
    • An LTA may include an airport diagram.
    • The airport diagram will be labeled "not for navigation" and is not an acceptable substitute for the most up−to−date airport diagrams. LTAs are available via the FAA NOTAM Search website: https://notams.aim.faa.gov/notamSearch/.
  • Pilots request publicly−available STRs by stating the desired STR name (e.g., ATC facility, flight or aircraft identification, location, request STR name).
    • By requesting an STR, a pilot acknowledges full familiarity with the STR.
    • The issuance of a pilot−requested STR is at the discretion of ATC.
  • STRs contain the same characteristics and responsibilities:
    • Pilots should not request, and ATC may not issue STR instructions during low visibility Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (SMGCS) operations.
    • It is the pilot's responsibility to maintain familiarity and awareness of the most current versions of STRs, as well as airport diagrams and charts prior to accepting an STR assignment.
    • If a pilot is unsure about the assigned STR procedure, the pilot is encouraged to either seek clarification from ATC or decline the STR assignment.
    • Pilots who become disoriented during taxi should advise ATC immediately and request detailed taxi instructions or other assistance.
    • An STR instruction does not constitute nor imply a clearance to cross a runway.
    • Unless otherwise stated by ATC, the issuance of an STR does not give an aircraft the right of way over another taxiing aircraft.
    • Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, originating from, and terminating to a non−movement area as part of an STR is at the discretion of the pilot in coordination with ramp control, if required.
    • If ATC instructs the pilot to deviate from an STR, ATC must issue detailed taxi instructions for the remainder of the taxi.
    • Pilots are urged to exercise caution when accepting STR assignments, especially when STRs are used or available at more than one airport in the same terminal area
  • ATC may cancel, amend, or revise an STR as necessary. Any updates to publicly−available STRs will be communicated via LTA with appropriate updates to the Domestic Notices website.
Taxiing

Taxi Considerations

  • Review the departure and arrival airport diagrams as part of preflight planning, especially at unfamiliar airports.
    • Pay attention to hot spots, runway crossings, or otherwise complex intersections
    • You may anticipate a likely taxi clearance based on the active runways, but be careful not to fall victim to expectancy bias.
  • Review the airport diagram before landing as part of the preflight and arrival planning.
  • GPS (Global Positioning System) overlays on taxi diagrams can help identify where you are and when turns are coming up, but you must continue to see and avoid on the ground
  • Keep airport diagrams handy whether digitally or on paper
  • Instruments like an HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator) can be helpful to orient to a runway and provide additional situational awareness of the aircraft's orientation
  • Don't be afraid to use progressive taxi
  • Don't be afraid to slow down or even stop if situational awareness is low or lost
  • Use caution when turning to consider where the back wheels will track so as not to hit an obstruction such as a taxiway edge light or taxi off the taxiway entirely
  • Personnel must always be aware of the dangers associated with moving surfaces
  • Rotor wash created by the blades of a rotary-winged aircraft or thrust from the exhaust section of a fixed-winged aircraft may cause severe personnel injury
  • The proper safety equipment must always be worn when working on flight decks and flight lines
  • IT IS THE PILOT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SEE AND AVOID ON THE TAXIWAY AS WELL
Taxiing

Tailwheel Considerations

  • Ramp Marshal Hand Signals
  • Aircraft with conventional landing gear (tailwheel airplanes) have handling and visibility considerations that differ from tricycle-gear airplanes.

  • Ground Loop:

    • The center of gravity is aft of the main landing gear, so a swerve can worsen as the center of gravity moves farther out of alignment behind the main-gear pivot point.
    • Use prompt, smooth rudder inputs—and differential braking when necessary—to prevent a turn from developing into a ground loop.
    • Do not assume that releasing the control pressure that began a turn will stop it; opposite input is normally required to return to straight-line travel.
    • If a ground loop becomes unavoidable, reduce power and use the airplane manufacturer's recommended procedure to minimize injury and damage.

  • Taxi Speed:

    • While speed can be a contributing factor to ground loops, it is also necessary to maintain positive control
    • If the aircraft is taxiing too fast and the brakes are applied too firmly, the tail can rise, causing the tailwheel to lose effectiveness while simultaneously moving the propeller closer to the ground.
    • If the tail comes up high enough, the pilot may experience a propeller, or "prop" strike
Taxiing

Hand Signals

  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Standard Hand and Arm Signals
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Standard Hand and Arm Signals
  • Flight Personnel are utilized on many aircraft ramps to direct traffic in an orderly fashion in accordance with local procedures. []
  • Flashing your landing/taxi lights at the marshaller will help signal when you are ready, especially at night
    • Likewise, don't blind them with the light, turn it off until clear of the marshaller

  • General Signals:

    • Affirmative:

      • Day: Thumbs up or head nod
      • Night: Flashlight moved vertically up-and-down repeatedly.

    • Negative:

      • Day: Thumbs down or head shake
      • Night: Flashlight moved horizontally back-and-forth repeatedly.

    • All Clear (O.K.):

      • Day: One arm pointing up with the other pointing down.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Start Engine:

      • Day: Point to the engine OR indicate the engine number with fingers while making a circular motion above the head with the other hand.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Proceed Straight Ahead:

      • Day: Hands gesture to come closer.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Pull Chocks:

      • Day: Move arms outward with thumbs pointed outward.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Turns:

      • Day: From the pilot's perspective, turn toward the signalman's lowered arm while the other arm beckons the aircraft forward.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Flagman Directs Pilot:

      • Day: Flagman holds hands in air to catch the pilot's attention.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Slow Down:

      • Day: With palms facing down, arms are moved up and down at side.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Insert Chocks:

      • Day: Move arms inward with thumbs pointed inward.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Cut Engine:

      • Day: A cutting motion with a flat palm is made across neck.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Stop:

      • Day: Cross both arms above the head to signal stop.
      • Night: Same signal as day, but with lights.

    • Clarify:

      • Day: Hand cupped behind ear as if listening
      • Night: None.

    • Wait:

      • Day: Hand held up, palm toward pilot
      • Night: None.

    • Ignore Last Signal:

      • Day: Hand waved back and forth in an erasing motion in front of face, with palm turned forward
      • Night: Trace of letter N, given by external light.

    • Numbers:

      • Day:
        • Fingers held vertically indicate 1 through 5
        • Fingers held horizontally indicate 6 through 9
        • A clenched fist indicates zero
      • Night: None
  • Airplane Flying Handbook, Standard Hand and Arm Signals
    Airplane Flying Handbook,
    Standard Hand and Arm Signals
Taxiing

Taxiing Common Errors

  • Rundown Feeling
  • Forgetting to remove a tie-down or chocks prior to attempting movement
    • Complete the exterior inspection and confirm that chocks, tie-downs, and other restraints are removed before moving.
  • Improper aileron deflection, particularly after turning
    • Reassess wind direction after every turn and apply the aircraft-appropriate aileron and elevator positions.
  • Taxiing with a power setting that requires controlling taxi speed with the brakes
    • Reduce power to a controllable taxi setting and use brakes as needed rather than continuously riding them against excess thrust.
  • Taxiing without confirming the route or runway clearance.
    • Review the airport diagram and clearance and stop to ask for clarification whenever position or instructions are uncertain.
  • Allowing cockpit tasks to distract from surface traffic and markings.
    • Complete heads-down tasks while stopped and keep the taxi scan focused outside.
  • Taxiing too fast for the available space or surface.
    • Use a speed that permits a prompt stop and slow before turns, congested areas, or poor surfaces.
  • Failing to verify brake operation or nearby clearance.
    • Check the brakes promptly after starting to move and maintain clearance from aircraft, people, and obstacles.
Taxiing

Taxiing Lessons & Case Studies

Taxiing

Taxiing Knowledge Check

Choose the knowledge check that matches your current training for Taxiing.

Private Pilot quiz illustration Private Pilot

PPL knowledge check

Core Knowledge Review

Review foundational knowledge, key concepts, and practical considerations. Topic: Taxiing.

  • Immediate feedback
  • Answer explanations
  • Account progress tracking

Why Take a Quiz?

Quizzes reinforce key concepts, identify knowledge gaps, and build confidence for real-world decisions. Quiz material is representative of the information provided here and is not based on or sourced from the Federal Aviation Administration test bank.

Taxiing

Taxiing Interactive Scenario

Aircraft maneuver illustration for Taxiing.

The Construction-Hot-Spot Taxi

Manage an unfamiliar airport taxi through brake checks, wind, clearance limits, blocked transmissions, runway crossings, construction, jet blast, and night lighting.

15 DecisionsScenario-Based TrainingTaxiingConsequence-BasedRetry and Debrief
Decision 1
0%

Scenario Complete

Taxiing

Taxiing Conclusion

  • Taxiing is part of every flight, and it should, therefore, be a part of all planning
  • ATC clearances or instructions pertaining to taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions.
    • Since "the pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft" the pilot should obtain clarification of any clearance or instruction which is not understood.
  • Therefore, it is important that pilots clearly understand the clearance or instruction
  • Although an ATC clearance is issued for taxiing purposes, when operating in accordance with the CFRs (Code of Federal Regulations), it is the responsibility of the pilot to avoid collision with other aircraft
  • In addition to conducting taxi operations as a maneuver, pilots must also be familiar and comply with all airport markings and signs
    • Pay attention when in a movement area and be cognizant of expectation bias, that is having a belief you are prepared for what lies ahead and not pay attention to what is different, such as an atypical location for a runway hold position marking
  • When it comes to hand and arm signals, variations may exist
    • If any questions come up while taxiing, stop, and try to get clarification before proceeding
  • When taxiing and determining wind direction, make sure you account for the resultant wind
  • Consider the use of heading bugs to remember where the wind is coming from and/or to remember the assigned takeoff direction
    • Consider the use of a heading indicator course indicator to supplement
  • While it is best practice to always apply taxi corrections, regardless of wind velocity, it is imperative these corrections be used any time you can feel even the slightest movement in the yoke
  • While it is best practice to always apply taxi corrections, regardless of wind velocity, it is imperative these corrections be used any time you can feel even the slightest movement in the yoke
  • During ground operations, jet blast, prop wash, and rotor wash (types of thrust stream turbulence) can cause damage and upsets if encountered at close range.
    • Pilots should consider the effects of jet blast, prop wash, and rotor wash on aircraft, vehicles, maintenance equipment, and open structures (i.e., hangars) during ground operations.
  • Maintain radio communication procedures, to include both towered and non-towered radio calls
  • Additional resources are available through tools such as the FAA's Runway Safety Simulator.
  • Remember when parking, to park in such a way to avoid inevitable jet blast (especially from larger aircraft), use tiedowns, and install control locks or covers as appropriate
  • Avoid pushing down on any tail section of aircraft to reposition - use a towbar
  • Don't be afraid to practice if you need it
  • As pilots upgrade into larger aircraft, taxiing may be accomplished by the use of a tiller, vs. rudder pedals
  • Remain mindful that performance calculations are usually more optimistic than actual performance.
  • Consider practicing maneuvers on a flight simulator to build or refresh your skills.
Taxiing

Taxiing References